T 

THE  SOCIAL  SCIENCE  PAMPHLETS 

ESSENTIALS  IN 

GRAPHY—  HISTORY—  CIVICS 
BY 

HAROLD  RUGG 
EARLE  RUGG 
EMMA  SCHWEPPE 
OF 

THE  LINCOLN  SCHOOL  OF  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 


THE  CITY  AND  KEY 

INDUST/RIES  IN 
MODERN  NATIONS 


Cities:    How  and  Why  They  Grc  v 
Transportation  and  City  Life 
Coal,  a  Crucial  Industry 
Tic^  Between  Farm  and  City 
^■esources  and  Industries  of  America 
Interdependence  of  Nations 
V  Industrial  and  Agricultural  Countries 
Empires,  Colonies,  Ships,  Resources 

AN  EXPERIMETSTAL  EDITION 
Of  Pamphlet  No.  2  of  Volume  I:    The  Seventh  GmJe  Series 

This  edition  is  published  by  the  authors  fo^  cooperative 
experiment'ition  in  schools  with  which  arrangements  arc 
mftde.    It  is  not  fc:  general  commercial  distribution 


Copyright,  1922,  by  Harold  Rugg,  Earle  Rugg,  and  Emma  Schweppe. 
The  reproduction  of  these  materials  is  expressly  prohibited. 


THIS  is  one  of  The  Social  Science  Pamphlets  for  the  school 
grades  Seven,  Eight,  and  Nine.  Although  these  Pamphlets 
are  not  a  perfected  curriculum,  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  printed 
at  this  time  in  order  to  determine  experimentally  their  reorganiza- 
tion. The  content  that  they  represent^  J[ias  been  taught  in  mimeo- 
graphed form  in  three  grades  of  Th4  XmioC  9biJi'ool  of  Teachers 
College,  1920-1922.  For  two  years  and  a  half  the  authors  have 
also  carried  on  curriculum  investigations  seeking  to  validate  the 
content  of  this  social  science  course.  The  present  status  of  these 
studies  justifies  the  printing  of  a  trial  edition.  The  purpose  of  the 
trial  edition  is  to  determine  by  measured  experimentation  the  grade 
placement  and  teaching  arrangement  of  the  material.  As  a  result 
of  their  cooperative  use  in  public  schools,  1922-1923,  The  Social 
Science  Pamphlets  will  be  completely  revised  and  issued  in  another 
experimental  edition  for  use  in  cooperating  schools,  1923-1924. 

A  series  of  monographs  will  be  published  to  accompany  this 
curriculum  which  will  report  the  research  by  which  the  materials 
have  been  selected  and  organized. 


The  City  and  Key  Industries  in  Modern  Nations  is 
Pamphlet  No.  2  of  Vol.  I,  the  7th  Grade  Series,  in  a  complete 
Seventh,  Eighth,  and  Ninth  Grade  curriculum  in  geography, 
history,  and  civics.  Five  pamphlets  will  be  issued  for  each  grade. 
They  will  deal  with  the  following  aspects  of  American  life,  pre- 
senting essential  contemporary  matters  together  with  needed  his- 
torical background  and  geographic  conditions  and  explanations: 

I.  Immigration  and  Americanization. 

II.  Conserving  Our  Natural  Resources. 

III.  Industry,  Business,  and  Transportation. 

IV.  Schools,  the  Press,  Public  Opinion. 
V.  The  American  City  and  Its  Problems. 

VI.  The  Culture  of  America  and  of  Other  Lands. 
VII.  Problems  of  Government  in  a  Representative  Democracy. 
VIII.  Primitive  Peoples,  Past  and  Present. 
IX.  America  and  World  Affairs. 

The  authors  need  cooperation  and  criticism  from  public  schools. 
They  will  welcome  inquiries  and  suggestions  about  this  experi- 
mental work. 


Address  all  inquiries  to:  Harold  RIjgg^  The  Lincoln  School, 
25  West  123rd  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


THE 


Return  this  book  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 

Theft,  mutilation,  and  underlining  of  books 
are  reasons  for  disciplinary  action  and  may 
result  in  dismissal  from  the  University. 
University  of  Illinois  Library 


L161— O-1096 

Industrial  and  Agricultural  Countries 
Empires,  Colonies,  Ships,  Resources 

AN  EXPERIMENTAL  EDITION 
Of  Pamphlet  No.  2  of  Volume  I:    The  Seventh  Grade  Series 


r 


This  edition  is  published  by  the  authors  tor  cooperative 
experimentation  in  schools  with  which  arrangements  are 
made.    It  is  not  for  general  commercial  distribution 


J 


Copyright,  1922,  by  Harold  Ruog,  Earle  Rugg,  and  Emma  Schweppe. 
The  reproduction  of  these  materials  is  expressly  prohibited. 


THIS  is  one  of  The  Social  Science  Pamphlets  for  the  school 
grades  Seven,  Eight,  and  Nine.  Although  these  Pamphlets 
are  not  a  perfected  curriculum,  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  printed 
at  this  time  in  order  to  determine  experimentally  their  reorganiza- 
tion. The  content  that  they  represent;  Jbas  been  taught  in  mimeo- 
graphed form  in  three  grades  of  T\A  tfnioC  S^ool  of  Teachers 
College,  1920-1922.  For  two  years  and  a  half  the  authors  have 
also  carried  on  curriculum  investigations  seeking  to  validate  the 
content  of  this  social  science  course.  The  present  status  of  these 
studies  justifies  the  printing  of  a  trial  edition.  The  purpose  of  the 
trial  edition  is  to  determine  by  measured  experimentation  the  grade 
placement  and  teaching  arrangement  of  the  material.  As  a  result 
of  their  cooperative  use  in  public  schools,  1922-1923,  The  Social 
Science  Pamphlets  will  be  completely  revised  and  issued  in  another 
experimental  edition  for  use  in  cooperating  schools,  1923-1924. 

A  series  of  monographs  will  be  published  to  accompany  this 
curriculum  which  will  report  the  research  by  which  the  materials 
have  been  selected  and  organized. 


The  City  and  Key  Industries  in  Modern  Nations  is 
Pamphlet  No.  2  of  Vol.  I,  the  7th  Grade  Series,  in  a  complete 
Seventh,  Eighth,  and  Ninth  Grade  curriculum  in  geography, 
history,  and  civics.  Five  pamphlets  will  be  issued  for  each  grade. 
They  will  deal  with  the  following  aspects  of  American  life,  pre- 
senting essential  contemporary  matters  together  with  needed  his- 
torical background  and  geographic  conditions  and  explanations: 

I.  Immigration  and  Americanization. 
II.  Conserving  Our  Natural  Resources. 

III.  Industry,  Business,  and  Transportation. 

IV.  Schools,  the  Press,  Public  Opinion. 
V.  The  American  City  and  Its  Problems. 

VI.  The  Culture  of  America  and  of  Other  Lands. 
VII.  Problems  of  Government  in  a  Representative  Democracy. 
VIII.  Primitive  Peoples,  Past  and  Present. 
IX.  America  and  World  Affairs. 

The  authors  need  cooperation  and  criticism  from  public  schools. 
They  will  welcome  inquiries  and  suggestions  about  this  experi- 
mental work. 

Address  all  inquiries  to :  Harold  R  Ijgg^  The  Lincoln  School, 
425  West  123rd  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 


THE  SOCIAL  SCIENCE  PAMPHLETS 


ESSENTIALS  IN 
GEOGRAPHY— HISTORY— CIVICS 

BY 

HAROLD  RUGG 
EARLE  RUGG 
EMMA  SCHWEPPE 
OF 

THE  LINCOLN  SCHOOL  OF  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 


THE  CITY  AND  KEY 

INDUSTRIES  IN 
MODERN  NATIONS 

Cities:    How  and  Why  They  Grew 
Transportation  and  City  Life 
Coal  a  Crucial  Industry 
Ties  Between  Farm  and  City 
Resources  and  Industries  of  America 
Interdependence  of  Nations 
Industrial  and  Agricultural  Countries 
Empires,  Colonies,  Ships,  Resources 


AN  EXPERIMENTAL  EDITION 
Of  Pamphlet  No.  2  of  Volume  I:    The  Seventh  Grade  Series 


This  edition  is  published  by  the  authors  tor  cooperative 
experimentation  in  schools  with  which  arrangements  are 
made.    It  is  not  for  general  commercial  distribution 


HOSE  who  are  engaged  in  the  making  of  these  materials 


I  of  instruction  believe  that  the  future  of  representative 
democracy  in  America  depends  upon  the  intelligence  of  the  com- 
mon man.  They  believe  that  the  known  facts  of  intelligence  are 
worthy  of  the  hypothesis  that  there  is  in  the  group  mind  sufficient 
capacity  to  express  its  will  effectively  through  industrial,  social, 
and  political  machinery.  This  means  that  potential  capacity 
must  be  transformed  into  dynamic  ability.  They  are  equally  con- 
fident that,  although  America  has  practised  universal  education  on 
a  scale  never  before  attempted  by  a  large  nation,  our  instruction 
has  fallen  far  short  of  preparing  the  rank  and  file  for  the  intelligent 
operation  of  democratic  government. 

After  more  than  a  century  of  democracy,  there  are  signs  of 
serious  import  that  we  are  facing  a  near  impasse  in  citizenship. 
The  impasse,  if  such  it  is,  is  undoubtedly  the  natural  outgrowth  of 
our  spectacular  conquest  of  vast  material  wealth ;  of  our  recep- 
tion into  the  country  of  thirty-three  millions  of  people  of  diverse 
races,  nationalities,  practices,  and  beHefs,  and  of  the  massing  of 
human  beings  in  cities  at  a  rate  of  which  we  had  hitherto  not 
dreamed.  The  present  crisis  has  been  brought  about  in  large  part 
by  the  mushroom  growth  of  a  fragile  and  highly  specialized 
mechanism  of  industry,  transportation,  communication,  and 
credit.  With  these  stupendous  material  advances,  resulting  in  the 
artificial  inflation  of  our  economic  and  social  standards  of  liv- 
ing, there  has  not  been  a  parallel  aesthetic,  spiritual,  and  cul- 
tural growth. 

To  relieve  this  impasse,  we  must  substitute  critical  judgment 
for  impulsive  response  as  the  basis  for  deciding  our  social  and 
political  issues.  The  thoroughgoing  reconstruction  of  the  school 
curriculum  is  a  necessary  first  step  in  the  process,  for  the  reason 
that  the  public  school  is  our  most  potent  agency  for  social  regen- 
eration. Especially  through  the  curriculum  in  the  social  sciences 
must  we  subject  our  youth  to  a  daily  regimen  of  deliberation 
and  critical  thought.  Only  those  who  have  been  trained  through 
years  of  practise  in  the  analysis  of  facts,  in  the  making  of  de- 
cisions, the  drawing  of  inferences  and  conclusions,  will  resort  to 
intelligence  instead  of  to  predisposition  as  their  guide  for  con- 
duct. 


PART  I 


CITIES,   TRANSPORTATION,   AND  INDUSTRY 

AMERICA 


The  Social  Science  Pamphlets  have  been  organized  and  written  with  the 
collaboration  of  Marie  Gulbransen 


A  Foreword  to  the  Teacher  will  be  found  in  Pamphlet  No.  1  of  the 
Seventh  Grade  Series,  "America  and  Her  Immigrants."  This  explains 
how  the  pamphlets  have  been  made,  and  gives  suggestions  for  the  teacher's 
use  of  them.  The  Foreword  has  also  been  reprinted  as  a  separate  folder 
and  a  copy  is  being  sent  with  each  set  of  pamphlets  ordered  for  class  use. 


A  Foreword  to  the  Pupil  will  be  found  in  Pamphlets  No.  1  of  the  Seventh 
Eighth  and  Ninth  Grade  Series. 


A  SUGGESTED  SCHEDULE  OF  LESSONS  will  be  found  at  the 
end  of  this  pamphlet.  We  suggest  that  you  use  it  as  a  guide  in  planning 
your  assignments. 


1.    COMPLICATED  LIFE  OF  TODAY 


Courtesy  of  Armour  &  Company,  Chicago. 
Fig.  1 


What  Title  Would  You  Suggest  for  This  Picture? 

Why  is  the  farm  placed  in  the  center  ? 

What  things  appear  to  be  conaing  out  of  the  farm  ?  Where  are  they 
going?    What  happens  to  them  then? 

What  comes  back  in  exchange  for  them?  When  the  .farmer  sends 
sheep  to  the  packers,  what  does  he  get  in  exchange?  What  comes  to  the 
farmer  from  the    markets?    What  does  he  give  in  ex- 

(what?)  ,  ,  .  .  ,  1 

change?  Instead  of  sending  out  cattle  and  gettmg  money  m  exchange,  and 
then  sending  out  the  money  again  for  farm  wagons,  or  for  coats  and  hats, 
why  doesn't  he  just  exchange  the  cattle  for  these  things  without  handling 


2 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


money  at  all?  Does  your  reason  hold  good  in  the  case  of  canned  goods 
which  are  put  up  by  packers?  Why  do  farmers  use  money  in  exchanging 
cattle  for  canned  goods?  Have  people  always  used  money  in  making  ex- 
changes? Did  the  English  traders  give  the  Indians  money  for  their  furs, 
or  did  they  make  even  exchanges  with  them  of  trinkets  for  furs?  What 
was  this  method  of  trading  called  ?  What  is  the  value  of  making  exchanges 
with  money?  Do  you  suppose  there  is  any  place  today  where  they  trade 
as  they  did  in  the  old  barter  days? 

The  other  day  in  Connecticut  there  was  a  man  who  wanted  to  trade  a 
pair  of  cart  wheels  for  two  pigs,  and  the  farmer  was  willing  to  make  the 
exchange.  Why  do  you  suppose  he  didn't  just  sell  his  cart  wheels,  then  go 
to  the  farmer  and  buy  two  pigs?  Would  his  reasons  for  not  doing  so  hold 
in  general  exchange  between  farmer  and  city  manufacturer?  What  then 
would  you  say  is  the  chief  advantage  in  using  money? 

Study  the  pictogram  again.  What  does  the  farmer  get  from  the  world's 
markets  with  the  money  he  receives  from  them  in  return  for  the  farm  products 
that  he  sent  out? 

( 1 )  Make  a  list  of  the  absolute  necessities  that  the  pictogram  shows  he 
gets. 

(2)  Make  a  list  of  the  things  that  you  think  he  might  reasonably  re- 
gard as  "comforts  of  life" — things  which  he  ought  to  have  to  make  life 
comfortable  and  worth  living. 

(3)  Are  there  things  pictured  which  are  "luxuries"  and  which  he 
could  well  get  along  without?    Name  them. 

What  would  you  suggest  now  as  a  fitting  title  for  the 
pictogram?  Find  one  that  will  summarize  the  meaning  of 
the  whole  picture. 


Illustrations  of  How  the  American  People  Have  Changed 
Their  Ways  of  Living  Within  a  Few  Generations 
As  you  read  the  next  several  sections,  notice  the  sharp  contrasts  between 
the  way  people  live  now  and  the  way  they  used  to  live,  the  conveniences 
they  have  now  against  the  lack  of  them  in  earlier  days,  and  the  way  life  has 
been  growing  more  and  more  complicated  as  time  has  gone  on,  and  people 
have  become  more  and  more  dependent  upon  each  other  for  the  needs  of 
their  daily  lives. 


1.    From  Log  Cabin  to  Frame  House  and  Apartment 

Do  you  know  how  people  lived  in  frontier  times,  before  our  country  was 
settled?  Did  they  live  in  apartment  buildings  or  brick  or  wooden  frame- 
houses  as  they  do  today  ?  No,  home  meant  a  rude  cabin  in  a  clearing — a  little 
log  building,  generally  sixteen  by  twenty  feet,  heavy  logs  cut  from  the 


THE  COMPLICATED  LIFE  OF  TODAY 


3 


forest  in  making  the  "clearing,"  and  laid  on  the  ground  for  a  floor.  Did 
they  have  nails  and  spikes  for  fastening?  No,  indeed.  Logs  had  to  be 
notched  together,  and  the  larger  ones  laid  as  foundations.  Cellars?  None 
at  all.  Floors  of  well- planed  and  polished  oak?  No — puncheons  instead, 
thick,  rough  slabs  split  from  great  logs  were  laid  down  over  round  cross 
logs  and  held  in  place  by  wooden  pins,  for  the  frontiersman  lacked  metal. 


Fig.  2. 


Doors?  Generally  one  only,  also  constructed  of  heavy  slabs,  and 
swung  on  wooden  hinges.  Of  course  they  had  no  glass,  so  what  do  you 
think  was  used  for  window  panes?  Paper!  Greased  paper.  One  couldn't 
see  through  it,  but  it  did  let  in  light.  More  frequently,  in  earliest  pioneer 
days,  no  window-panes  at  all  were  used.  The  danger  from  attack  was  so 
great  that  doors  were  made  stout  and  oftentimes  they  were  swung  in  two  sec- 
tions to  guard  against  some  unwelcome  stranger. 

Pioneer  furniture  was  like  the  rest  of  frontier  life — home  made,  and 
always  wooden.  The  table  was  a  smooth  slab  on  four  posts,  with  chairs 
and  three-legged  stools  to  match.  Beds?  Sometimes  merely  animals' 
skins  and  blankets  laid  on  the  floor.  Crude  bedsteads  were  made  by  laying 
slabs  across  sticks  raised  from  the  ground  by  other  notched  sticks.  Do  you 
think  they  had  soft  mattresses  to  sleep  on  ?  Far  from  it.  For  a  long  time,  a 
bed  tick  made  of  plain  straw  was  a  great  luxury. 

When  the  pioneer  sat  down  at  the  welcome  call  of  "supper"  after  a 
hard  day's  work,  did  he  come  to  a  table  laid  with  linen  cloth,  shining  silver, 
and  dainty  china?  No,  he  was  glad  to  be  able  to  find  time  in  long 
winter  evenings  to  whittle  out  wooden  plates,  spoons,  cups,  bowls.  The  cold 
drink  was  most  frequently  taken  from  a  gourd.  To  match  the  serving 
dishes  went  the  cooking  utensils.  A  few  iron  kettles  and  knives  were  an 
absolute  necessity.  You  may  well  imagine  that  the  forntiersman  carried 
them  with  him  from  place  to  place  on  his  western  trails  and  treasured  them 


4 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


very  carefully.  For  iron  was  hard  to  get.  One  couldn't  just  go  to  the 
hardware  store  and  buy  a  new  stool,  as  he  can  now,  when  an  old  one  gave 
out  or  was  lost.   The  loss  of  an  iron  tool  was  a  calamity  on  the  frontier. 


Does  this  read  much  like  an  account  of  the  way  people  live  on  the  farms 
or  in  the  cities  of  America  today?  How  wonderfully  we  have  contrived  to 
provide  ourselves  with  comforts  and  even  luxuries !  But  we  live  so  much  in 
the  midst  of  them  that  we  are  apt  not  to  pay  any  attention  to  them. 

Make  a  list  of  home  conveniences  that  were  unheard  of  in  frontier  times. 
How  many  of  the  items  were  known  even  as  late  as  1880  when  the  frontier 
disappeared?  Can  you  get  stories  about  pioneer  life  from  your  parents  or 
grandparents  which  you  can  tell  the  class  ? 

What  kinds  of  houses  do  the  people  of  your  town  live  in  today?  Any 
log  cabins?  If  so,  they  must  be  few  and  far  between.  Frame  houses? 
Brick  houses?  Apartment  buildings  or  tenements?  Two  or  three-family 
houses?  Stucco  dwellings?  Stone  buildings?  Contrast  these  with  the 
house  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

Make  a  list  on  the  blackboard  of  the  different  ways  the  homes  of  the 
pupils  in  the  class  are  heated.  One  class  that  we  know  about  made  a  list  of 
seven  different  ways.  How  many  can  you  find?  Do  they  make  you  think 
much  of  the  kind  of  life  pictured  in  this  next  story? 


2.    'Borrowing  Fire'  in  1850 

"I  can  remember  more  than  once,"  said  a  Civil  War  veteran,  reminiscing 
before  the  evening  fireplace,  "when  my  father  sent  me  across  the  fields  from 
our  Indiana  farm  to  borrow  fire  from  a  neighbor.    We  didn't  have  matches 
in  those  days,  and  it  was  mighty  serious  business  when  the  fire  went  out. 
My  legs  were  nimble,  father  would  say,  and  so  off  I'd  trudge  with  an  iron 
vessel  to  the  nearest  farm  house  to  get  a  little  fire.    It  always  happened  on 
the  coldest  days,  seem'd  like.    The  big  fireplace  at  the  end  of  the  cabin  was 
the  only  means  of  heating  that  we  had.    There  were  no  iron  coal  stoves 
when  I  was  a  boy,  just  a  great  blazing  log  fire  which  would  heat  one  side 
of  you  red  while  the  other  side  froze.    That  was  our  furnace,  our  cook 
stove,  and  our  reading  lamp.    Many  the  night  that  I  lay  on  the  rough 
floor  reading  by  the  firelight  one  of  the  few  books  we  had  in  the  place.  We 
had  candles  which  we  made  ourselves,  but  they  were  precious  and  we 
didn't  use  them  much  unless  we  had  to.    Yet  it  was  comfy  and  cozy,  that 
old  wood  fire,  and  1  don't  wonder  that  people  who  can  afford  to  burn 
woodfires  have  them  today  in  addition  to  their  furnaces.    Our  home  was 
the  kind  of  place  Abe  Lincoln  was  brought  up  in.    I  was  a  boy  just  a 
little  later  than  he  was,  and  when  I  read  stories  about  him  it  brings  back 
memories  of  my  boyhood." 


THE  COMPLICATED  LIFE  OF  TODAY 


5 


What  kind  of  light  do  you  use  in  your  house?  If  you  get  up  in  the 
night,  do  you  have  to  light  a  home-made  candle  with  a  stick  of  wood  or  a 
paper  taper  from  the  embers  in  the  fireplace?  That  is  the  way  your  great 
grandfathers  had  to  do.  Or,  do  you  just  snap  on  the  electric  light,  or  touch 
a  match  to  the  gas  jet? 

Did  your  great  grandfather  have  matches?  No,  he  didn't  in  his  early 
life.  You  may  have  heard  stories  at  home  of  the  excitement  aroused  by  the 
first  kerosene  lamp  that  was  brought  into  your  grandparents'  neighborhood. 
A  kerosene  lamp  was  exciting  sixty  or  seventy  years  ago!  But  nowadays, 
we  think  houses  are  not  at  all  up  to  date  if  the  people  who  live  in  them  have 
to  use  such  things. 


3.    In  1865— and  in  1922 

Study  these  charts  carefully.  They  contrast  life  in  1865  with  life  in 
1922  in  another  way.  In  1865  American  families  lived  simply,  were  inde- 
pendent, self-sufficient,  resourceful.  In  1922  they  live  a  very  complicated 
and  dependent  sort  of  life. 


AMERICANS  IN  1865 


Bought  little  more  than  hard- 
ware, tools,  spices,  coffee. 


Built  their  own  homes.   


Made  their  own  furniture. 


Raised  their  own  food. 


Transportation  and  communi- 
cation poor;  roads  poor;  rail- 
roads few ;  oxen  and  horses  for 
hauling;  little  mail. 


Made  their  own  clothes. 


Homes  located  near: 

1.  Good  water  supply. 

2.  Timber   for  building  and 

fuel. 

3.  Game  and  fish  for  food. 

4.  Good  grazing  land  for  cat- 

tle. 


Fig.  3 


6 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


AMERICANS  IN  1922 


They  work  at  one  task.  They 
are  paid  wages,  and  exchange 
these  wages  for  their  needed 
supplies  in  stores. 


Live  in  rented  apartments. 


Buy  manufactured  furniture. 


Buy  Food  from  grocery  and 
meat  stores. 


Fig.  4 

Can  you  give  other  illustrations  of  the  differences  in  ways  of  living  than 
those  brought  out  in  these  tw^o  charts  ? 


4.    "Department"  Store  vs.  "General"  Store 

Make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  stores  there  are  in  your  home  town 
or  city.  Of  course  you  have  grocery  stores,  meat-markets,  and  drug  stores. 
What  others  do  you  have? 

What  is  the  largest  store  in  your  town?  Does  it  sell  just  one  kind 
of  goods,  such  as  groceries  or  meat?  What  different  kinds  of  things  can  you, 
buy  there? 

If  you  were  on  your  way  to  a  train  to  take  a  long  trip  and  had  just- 
half  an  hour  or  so  to  do  several  errands,  what  kind  of  stores  would  you  go- 
to? Suppose  you  wanted  to  get  some  fruit  and  cookies  for  lunch,  a  neck- 
tie, a  pair  of  shoes,  a  new  purse,  and  a  book  of  fiction  to  read  on  the  train. 
Would  it  be  necessary  for  you  to  go  about  the  town  from  fruit  store  to 
clothing  store,  from  shoe  store  to  restaurant,  from  dry  goods  store  to  a 
leather  store,  and  finally  to  a  book  store?  If  you  live  in  a  small  community, 
perhaps  you  would  need  to  take  all  these  trips  about  town.  But  in  the 
larger  cities,  places  of  100,000  to  200,000  and  above  in  population,  you 
would  go  straight  to  a  large  "department"  store  and  do  all  your  shopping 
right  under  one  roof.  Clothing  of  all  sorts  you  would  find  for  men,  women, 
and  children;  hardware,  utensils,  implements  for  house  and  farm  disphiyed 
in  tempting  array  and  fine  variety.  "A  paper  of  pins?  A  piano?  Cer- 
tainly, right  this  way.  Music  department  over  at  your  right,"  the  floor- 
walker would  tell  you.    "Groceries  on  the  fifth  floor;  china  on  the  sixth,"" 


They  are  carried  to  and  from 
work  and  get  their  supplies  by 
means  of  excellent  transporta- 
tion, such  as  railroads,  street 
cars,  elevated  trains,  subways, 
express,  mail,  automobiles.  Won- 
derful communication  system: 
telephone,  telegraph,  wireless, 
and  radio. 


Buy  clothes  from  stores. 


THE  COMPLICATED  LIFE  OF  TODAY 


7 


you  would  hear  from  the  elevator  boy.  "The  latest  novel  for  this  lady, 
please."  "Yes,  there  is  a  writing  room  and  library  on  the  third  floor." 
"The  post  office  madam?  you  need  not  go  out-of-doors  to  the  General  Post 
Office;  we  have  one  on  the  main  floor,  right."  These  questions  you  could 
hear  answered  at  almost  any  hour  of  the  day. 

We  hear  some  one  say,  "But  you  can  do  that  in  the  country  villages." 
Yes,  in  a  way  you  can  and  could  even  in  pioneer  days.  The  "country 
store" — the  "general  store" — that  was  the  forerunner  of  the  great  depart- 
ment store  of  the  large  city.  In  the  "general  store"  of  the  village  they  sell 
a  good  many  kinds  of  things,  and  in  the  old  days  what  you  couldn't  get  there 
you  went  without. 

But  there  are  great  differences  between  the  "general  store"  of  the  village 
and  the  department  store  of  the  city.  We  can  think  of  at  least  five.  How 
many  can  you  think  of  ?  Make  a  list  of  them  in  your  notebook  to  be  copied  on 
the  blackboard. 


These  short  contrasts  are  just  an  introduction  to  your  study  of  the  com- 
plicated life  of  our  modern  machine  world.  In  your  study  of  the  pam- 
phlet you  will  find  many  more  examples  of  it.  The  next  section  is  a  series 
of  little  stories  written  by  people  who  lived  during  different  stages  that  we 
have  passed  through  from  the  early  pioneer  life  on  the  farm  and  in  the  vil- 
lage to  our  present-day  concentrated  city  life.  Read  them  quickly — ^just  to 
get  a  feeling  of  how  life  became  more  and  more  complicated  and  how 
people  became  more  and  more  dependent  upon  each  other. 

Before  you  begin  the  next  section,  make  sure  that  you  have  discussed 
in  class  all  the  examples  you  can  think  of  illustrating  how  Americans  have 
changed  their  ways  of  living  in  recent  years.  Is  there  anyone  in  the  class 
who  can  tell  whether  English  people  live  much  as  we  do  now,  and  whether 
they  too  have  changed  similarly  in  the  past  two  or  three  generations? 
What  about  the  French?  the  Germans?  Russians?  Chinese?  Japanese? 
The  people  of  India?  One  of  our  tasks  this  year  is  to  learn  a  great  deal 
about  all  these  people  and  their  ways  of  living  as  well  as  about  our  own. 


II.    REAL  STORIES  OF  HOW  PEOPLE'S  WORK  HAS  GONE 
FROM  THE  HOME  TO  THE  FACTORY 


To  the  Teacher:  It  is  intended  that  these  quotations  be 
read  through  at  one  sitting.  They  have  been  selected 
merely  to  give  a  feeling  for  the  changes  that  have  come 
about  in  the  way  people  live  and  work.  We  suggest  that 
you  elaborate  the  class  discussions  by  other  examples. 

"When  President  Nott  of  Union  College,  and  his  brother  Samuel,  the 
famous  preacher,  were  boys  on  a  stony  farm  in  Connecticut,  one  of  the 
brothers  needed  a  new  suit  of  clothes,  and  as  the  father  was  sick  there  was 
neither  money  nor  wool  in  the  house.  The  mother  sheared  some  half-grown 
fleece  from  her  sheep,  and  in  less  than  a  week  the  boy  wore  it  as  clothing.  The 
shivering  and  generous  sheep  w^ere  protected  by  wrappings  of  braided  straw. 
During  the  Revolution,  it  is  said  that  in  a  day  and  a  night  a  mother  and  her 
daughters  in  Townsend,  Massachusetts,  sheared  a  black  and  white  sheep, 
carded  from  the  fleece  a  gray  wool,  spun,  wove,  cut  and  made  a  suit  of  clothes 
for  a  boy  to  wear  off  to  fight  for  liberty."  ^ 

Does  that  sound  much  like  the  preparation  of  uniforms  for  the 
World  War  ?  If  every  mother  had  had  to  shear  a  sheep  for  her  boy, 
what  would  folks  who  lived  in  the  city  have  done  ? 


A  PICTURE  OF  LIFE  IN  THE  MORE  ESTABLISHED 
SETTLEMENTS  OF  1800 

Every  family  lived  as  much  as  possible  within  itself.  Money  was  scarce, 
wages  being  about  fifty  cents  a  day,  though  these  w^ere  generally  paid  in  meat, 
vegetables,  and  other  articles  of  use — seldom  in  money.  There  was  not  a 
factory  of  any  kind  in  the  place.  [I  recollect,  as  an  after-thought,  one  excep- 
tion. There  was  a  hatter  who  supplied  the  town ;  but  he  generally  made  hats 
to  order,  and  usually  in  exchange  for  the  skins  of  foxes,  rabbits,  muskrats 
and  other  chance  peltry.  I  frequently  purchased  my  powder  and  shot  from 
the  proceeds  of  skins  which  I  sold  him.]  There  was  a  butcher,  but  he  only 
went  from  house  to  house  to 'slaughter  the  cattle  and  swine  of  his  neighbors. 
There  was  a  tanner,  but  he  only  dressed  other  people's  skins :  there  was  a  cloth- 
ier but  he  generally  fulled  and  dressed  other  people's  cloth.  All  this  is  typical 
of  the  mechanical  operation  of  the  place.  Even  dyeing  blue  a  portion  of  the 
wool,  so  as  to  make  linsey-woolsey  for  shortgowns,  aprons,  and  blue-mixed 
stockings — vital  necessities  in  those  days — was  a  domestic  operation.  During 

1  Karley  Alice  Morse:  "Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days."  The  Maomillan  Co..  New 
York.  1010.'    Papes  202  and  203. 


FROM  HOME  TO  FACTORY 


9 


the  autumn,  a  dye-tub  in  the  chimney  corner — thus  placed  so  as  to  be  cher- 
ished by  the  genial  heat— was  as  familiar  in  all  thrifty  houses,  as  the  Bible 
or  the  back-log.  It  was  covered  with  a  board,  and  formed  a  cosy  seat  in  the 
wide-mouthed  fireplace,  especially  of  a  chill  evening.  .  .  . 

''Every  autumn,  it  was  a  matter  of  course  that  we  had  a  fat  ox  or  a  fat 
cow,  ready  for  slaughter.  One  full  barrel  was  salted  down ;  the  hams  were 
cut  out,  sHghtly  salted,  and  hung  up  in  the  chimney  for  a  few  days,  and  thus 
became  "dried"  or  "hung  beef,"  then  as  essential  as  the  staff  of  life.  Pork 
was  managed  in  a  similar  way,  though  even  on  a  larger  scale,  for  two  barrels 
were  indispensable.  A  few  pieces,  as  the  spareribs,  &c.,  were  distributed  to 
the  neighbors,  who  paid  in  kind  when  they  killed  their  swine.  .  .  . 

"Our  bread  was  of  rye,  tinged  with  Indian  meal.  Wheat  bread  was  re- 
served for  the  sacrament  and  company ;  a  proof  not  of  its  superiority,  but  of 
its  scarcity  and  consequent  estimation.  All  the  vegetables  came  from  our 
garden  and  farm.  The  fuel  was  supplied  by  our  own  woods — sweet-scented 
hickory,  snapping  chestnut,  odoriferous  oak,  and  reeking,  fizzling  ash — the 
hot  juice  of  the  latter,  by  the  way,  being  a  sovereign  antidote  for  the  ear-ache. 
These  were  laid  in  huge  piles,  all  alive  with  sap,  on  the  tall,  gaunt  and- 
irons. .  .  . 

"Sugar  was  partially  supplied  by  our  maple-trees.  These  were  tapped  in 
March,  the  sap  being  collected,  and  boiled  down  in  the  woods.  This  was 
wholly  a  domestic  operation,  and  one  in  which  all  the  children  rejoiced, 
each  taking  his  privilege  of  an  occasional  sip  or  dip,  from  the  period  of  the 
limpid  sap,  to  the  granulated  condiment.  Nevertheless,  the  chief  supply  of 
sugar  was  from  the  West  Indies.  .  .  . 

"There  was,  of  course,  no  baker  in  Ridgefield ;  each  family  not  only  made 
its  own  bread,  cakes,  and  pies,  but  their  own  soap,  candles,  butter,  cheese, 
and  the  like.  The  fabrication  of  cloth,  Hnen,  and  woolen  was  no  less  a  do- 
mestic operation.  Cotton — that  is,  raw  cotton — was  then  wholly  unknown 
among  us  at  the  North,  except  as  a  mere  curiosity,  produced  somewhere  in 
the  tropics;  but  whether  it  grew  on  a  plant,  or  an  animal,  was  not  clearly 
settled  in  the  public  mind. 

"We  raised  our  own  flax,  rotted  it,  hackled  it,  dressed  it,  and  spun  it.  The 
little  wheel,  turned  by  the  foot,  had  its  place,  and  was  as  familiar  as  if  it 
had  been  a  member  of  the  family.  How  often  have  I  seen  my  mother,  and 
my  grandmother  too,  sit  down  to  it — though  this,  as  I  remember,  was  for 
the  purpose  of  spinning  some  finer  kind  of  thread — the  burden  of  the  spin- 
ning being  done  by  a  neighbor  of  ours,  Sally  St.  John.  By  the  way,  she  was 
a  good-hearted,  cheerful  old  maid,  who  petted  me  beyond  my  deserts  

"The  wool  was  also  spun  in  the  family,  partly  by  my  sisters,  and  partly 
by  Molly  Gregory,  daughter  of  our  neighbor,  the  town  carpenter.  I  re- 
member her  well  as  she  sang  and  spun  aloft  in  the  attic.  .  .  . 


/ 


10 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


"The  knitting  of  stockings  was  performed  by  the  female  part  of  the 
family  in  the  evening,  and  especially  at  tea  parties.  .  .  . 

"Mantuamakers  [woman's  cloak  makers]  and  milliners  came  in  their 
turn,  to  fit  out  the  female  members  of  the  family.  There  was  a  similar  pro- 
cess as  to  boots  and  shoes.  We  sent  the  hides  of  the  cattle — sows  and  calves 
we  had  killed — to  the  tanner,  and  these  came  back  in  assorted  leather.  Oc- 
casionally, a  little  morocco,  then  wholly  a  foreign  manufacture,  was  bought 
at  the  store,  and  made  up  for  the  ladies'  best  shoes.  Amby  Benedict,  the  cir- 
culating shoemaker,  upon  due  notice,  came  with  his  bench,  lapstone,  and 
awls,  and  converted  some  little  room  into  a  shop,  till  the  household  was  duly 
shod.  He  was  a  merry  fellow,  and  threw  in  lots  of  singing  gratis.  He  played 
all  the  popular  airs  upon  his  lapstone — as  hurdygurdies  and  handorgans  do 
now. 

"Carpets  were  then  only  known  in  a  few  families,  and  were  confined  to 
the  keeping-room  and  parlor.  They  were  all  home-made:  the  warp  con- 
sisting of  woolen  yarn,  and  the  woof  of  lists  and  old  woolen  cloth,  cut  into 
strips,  and  sewed  together  at  the  ends.  Coverlids  generally  consisted  of 
quilts,  made  of  pieces  of  waste  calico,  elaborately  sewed  together  in  octa- 
gons, and  quilted  in  rectangles,  giving  the  whole  a  gay  and  rich  appearance. 
This  process  of  quilting  generally  brought  together  the  women  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, married  and  single,  and  a  great  time  they  had  of  it — ^what  with 
tea,  talk,  and  stitching."  ^ 


These  were  the  days  when  each  household  was  practically  inde- 
pendent of  every  other  household.  People  lived  far  apart.  If  a 
tailor  or  hatter  spent  a  week  at  each  house  fitting  out  the  family 
for  a  year,  how  many  houses  would  he  be  able  to  visit?  Lav^yers 
and  preachers  used  to  go  around  in  much  the  same  way  as  these 
tradesmen  before  people  lived  close  enough  to  each  other  to  have 
meeting-houses  and  court  houses. 


"E^  ery  farmer's  daughter  knew  how  to  weave  as  well  as  to  spin,  yet 
it  was  not  recognized  as  wholly  woman's  work  as  was  spinning;  for  there 
was  a  trade  of  hand-weaving  for  men,  to  which  they  were  apprenticed.  Every 
town  had  professional  weavers.  They  were  a  universally  respected  class, 
and  became  the  ancestors  of  many  of  the  wealthiest  and  most  influential 
citizens  today.  They  took  in  yarn  and  thread  to  weave  on  their  looms  at 
their  own  homes  at  so  much  a  yard ;  wove  their  own  yarn  into  stuffs  to  sell ; 
had  apprentices  to  their  trade;  and  also  went  out  working  by  the  day  at  their 
neighbors'  houses,  sometimes  carrying  their  looms  many  miles  with  them. 

1  Goodrich.  S.  G. :  "Recollections  of  a  T.ifetime."  Miller,  Orton  and  Mulligan. 
Nf'w  York.  1Hfl2.    Vol  I.  pages  64-75. 


FROM  HOME  TO  FACTORY 


U 


"Weavers  were  a  universally  popular  element  of  the  community.  The 
traveUing  w^eaver  was,  like  all  other  itinerant  tradesmen  of  the  day,  a  wel- 
come newsmonger ;  and  the  weaver  who  took  in  weaving  was  often  a  sta- 
tionary gossip,  and  gathered  inquiring  groups  in  his  loom-room ;  even  children 
loved  to  go  to  his  door  to  beg  for  bits  of  colored  yarn — thrums — which  they 
used  in  their  play,  and  also  tightly  braided  to  wear  as  shoestrings,  hair-laces, 
etc."  ^ 


For  a  long  time,  you  see,  each  household  made  everything  it 
needed — all  its  food,  every  kind  of  clothing,  put  up  all  its  own 
buildings;  and  that  was  about  all  it  had.  Gradually  some  people 
found  that  they  liked  to  do  one  kind  of  thing  so  much  better  than 
another  that  they  made  a  specialty  of  it  and  learned  to  do  it  well. 
As  a  result,  there  grew  up  a  class  of  tradesmen  called  ''itinerants" 
that  went  from  one  house  to  another  throughout  the  year,  each 
plying  his  own  trade,  whether  it  was  making  shoes,  hats,  suits  of 
clothes,  or  what-not.  With  some  of  their  work  done  for  them  in 
this  fashion,  each  family  had  more  time  to  give  to  the  doing  of  a 
few  things.  Frequently  the  household  made  more  than  it  needed 
for  its  own  use  of  certain  articles,  in  which  case  there  was  some 
to  sell  to  neighbors.  In  this  way  little  businesses  grew  up  within 
the  household,  for  if  a  neighbor  liked  his  purchase  he  wanted  more 
and  other  neighbors  wanted  to  buy.  You  can  easily  see  how  the 
master-worker  would  soon  find  that  he  could  not  supply  all  the  de- 
mands. What  did  he  do  then  ?  See  if  you  can  tell  from  the  next 
paragraph. 


"A  great  share  of  the  light  manufacture  of  America,  is  done  by  women 
in  the  farm-houses,  especially  in  the  New  England  states.  For  instance, 
straw  bonnets.  There  are  straw  bonnet  establishments  in  New  York  and 
Boston,  which  have  their  agents  continually  travelling  among  the  farm- 
houses. This  agent  drives  a  sort  of  van  or  omnibus,  and  brings  round  bunches 
of  straw  plait,  and  models  of  bonnets  of  the  newest  fashion.  These  he 
leaves  with  the  farmers'  wives  and  daughters,  all  round  the  country,  who 
work  up  into  bonnets,  according  to  the  peculiar  model,  the  plait  so  left.  In 
due  season  the  agent  returns  with  some  more  plait,  and  distributes  it  to  the 
straw-sewers  as  before,  and  receives  up  the  bonnets,  for  the  making  of  which 
he  pays.  All  the  females  of  an  entire  district,  including  the  doctors'  and 
ministers'  wives,  are  engaged  in  this  work.  In  another  district,  where  boot 
and  shoe-making  is  carried  on  upon  a  large  scale,  the  upper  parts  of  boots 


1  Earle,  Alice  Morse:  "Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days."  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New 
York,  1919.     Pages  212-213. 


12 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


and  shoes  are  sent  in  bound  into  the  farm-houses,  where  they  are  closed, 
bound,  and  otherwise  prepared  by  female  labour,  and  sent  back  in  the  same 
box  by  the  stage  coach,  the  wagon,  or  the  railway.  In  the  getting  up  of 
clothing,  shirts,  stocks,  hosiery,  suspenders,  carriage  trimmings,  buttons,  and 
a  hundred  other  light  things,  the  cheap  labour  of  the  farm-house  is  brought 
to  the  aid  of  manufactures:  every  district  has  in  it  some  peculiar  branch 
which  is  there  successfully  cultivated.  The  readiness,  too,  with  which  fe- 
males enter  into  the  factories,  into  the  great  bookbinding  and  tailoring  estab- 
lishments—contributes to  make  industry  the  leading  idea  of  every  one— for 
the  females  of  a  nation  form  the  nation  " 


It  wasn't  long  before  the  amount  of  business  outgrew  the  home. 
When  the  master  workman  had  accumulated  enough  to  buy  more 
machines— the  machines  were  very  expensive— he  moved  his  work 
into  a  separate  building.  Of  course  he  needed  more  workers 
in  his  "factory"  as  well  as  those  in  neighboring  homes.  He  em- 
ployed apprentices  at  very  low  wages..  After  an  apprentice  had 
worked  a  certain  number  of  years— it  was  seven  at  first— he  be- 
came a  "journeyman."  Peter  Cooper  was  an  apprentice.  Read 
what  he  had  to  say  back  about  1810: 

"In  my  seventeenth  year  I  entered  as  apprentice  to  the  coachmaking 
business.  I  remained  in  this  four  years,  till  I  was  of  age,  and  had  thoroughly 
learned  the  business.  During  my  apprenticeship  I  received  twenty-five  dol- 
lars a  year  for  my  services.  To  this  sum  I  added  something  by  working  at 
night  at  coach  carving,  and  such  other  work  as  I  could  get.  My  grand- 
mother gave  me  the  use  of  a  room,  in  one  of  her  rear  buildings  on  Broadway, 
where  I  spent  much  of  my  time  in  nightly  work.  During  my  apprentice- 
ship I  made  for  my  employer  a  machine  for  mortising  the  hubs  of  carriages, 
which  proved  very  profitable  to  him,  and  was  perhaps  the  first  of  its  kind 
used  in  this  country.  When  I  was  twenty-one  years  old,  my  employer  of- 
fered to  build  me  a  shop  and  set  me  up  in  business;  but,  as  I  always  had  a 
horror  of  being  burdened  with  debt,  and  having  no  capital  of  my  own,  I 
declined  his  kind  offer." 

r  nT^^.,^,r-    ««Mir.A  Vmts  In  AmeHca."  1850.    Quotied  by  Commons,  .Tohn 

U  ;'r,?i';rm°SrWumenJ^^H^s"totrof  An,erlca„lfndustHnl  society'-  The 
ArVli'ir  H  f-loak  Company,  Olevelanfl,  Ohio,  1010.    Vol.  7,  pages  V2-73. 


FROM  HOME  TO  FACTORY 


13 


How  Do  These  Advertisements  of  1804  and  1824 
Compare  With  the  Ads.  in  Our  Papers  of  Today? 

Advertisement  from  the  Tennessee  Gazette  &  Mero  District  Ad'vertiser 
(Nashville),  October  24,  1804. 

"BLUE,  RED,  GREEN,  BLACK  and  YELLOW  DYING.  I  will 
color  cotton  and  linnen  thread,  a  deep  blue,  at  four  shillings  and  six  pence 
per  pound ;  and  a  light  blue,  at  two  shillings  and  six  pence  per  pound ;  and 
the  other  colors  mentioned  I  will  dye  upon  woolen  at  2  shillings  per  pound, 
?  -^A  will  warrant  them  to  stand  equal  to  any  ever  dyed  in  America,  for  I 
aye  with  the  warm  dye.  I  am  also  ready  to  accommodate  the  public  with 
diaper  carpets,  double  coverlids,  and  summer  counterpanes;  weaving  at  the 
house  of  Maj  Buchanan,  who  owns  a  grist  mill,  on  Mill  creek,  four  miles 
from  Nashville,  on  the  road  leading  to  Jefferson.  Remember,  when  pre- 
paring your  coverlid  thread,  if  all  cotton,  to  spin  it  ten  cuts  to  the  pound, 
double  and  twist  it;  one  half  must  be  dyed  blue,  and  the  other  well  bleached ; 
and  if  one  half  is  woolen,  be  sure  to  spin  the  cotton  one  cut  finer  to  the  pound 
than  the  woolen  yarn,  and  no  more — eighteen  pounds  will  make  two  cover- 
lids. .  . 

I  will  take  cotton  thread,  or  woolen  yarn,  in  payment,  if  spun  as  above, 
and  I  will  give  a  generous  price  for  the  same.  Those  who  wish  to  purchase 
coverlids,  will  be  supplied  on  the  most  reasonable  terms — and  those  who 
wish  to  be  instructed  in  the  above  branches  of  business,  will  be  accommo- 
dated by  application  as  above.  Adam  McGuire." 

Advertisement  from  the  Knoxville  (Tenn.)  Register,  Dec.  3  1824. 

"Campbell's  Station,  I  am  receiving  at  my  store  in  this  place  and  at 
Kingston  a  new  supply  of  goods,  being  in  much  want  of  money  will  sell 
them  as  low  as  they  are  sold  for  the  same  sort  of  pay  in  Knoxville ;  will 
take  in  exchange  for  goods  whiskey,  when  in  new  barrels  and  all  of  oak, 
country  (1)  inen,  linsey,  feathers,  sewing-thread,  shoe-thred,  beef  hides,  oats, 
corn,  lamb's  wool,  fur  skins.  Salt  at  both  places  for  two  dollars  for  fifty 
pounds.  At  Kingston  by  the  barrel  at  one  dollar  and  seventy  five  cents  for 
fifty  pounds.  Wanted  as  many  wagons  as  I  can  get  to  haul  salt  from  King's 
work  to  this  place,  I  will  give  five  pounds  of  salt  more  than  is  given  for  bawl- 
ing to  Knoxville.   Samuel  Martin.   May  7,  1824."  ^ 

Lucy  Larcom  was  one  of  a  large  family  of  daughters.  After 
her  father's  death,  her  mother  had  to  find  a  way  to  provide  for  the 
children,  so  she  sold  her  small  estate  and  moved  to  the  then  new 
manufacturing  town  of  Lowell,  Mass.  growing  up  along  the  banks 
of  the  Merrimack.  She  knew  of  no  better  way  to  make  a  living 
than  to  run  a  boarding-house  for  mill  girls.  In  her  autobiography, 
Lucy  tells  how  they  moved,  describes  the  new  house,  and  tells 

1  "Old  South  Leaflets."    Directors  of  the  Old  South  Work,  Boston.    Vol.  6,  No. 
147.    "Autobiography  of  Peter  Cooper,"  pages  466. 


14 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


about  her  life  in  the  factory  where  she  and  her  sister  also  became 
"mill  girls"  in  order  to  help  out  on  the  family  budget.  Her  account 
is  a  small  picture  of  life  in  the  factory  of  a  hundred  years  ago. 

"The  change  involved  a  great  deal  of  work.  'Boarders'  signified  a 
large  house,  many  beds,  and  an  indefinite  number  of  people.  Such  piles  of 
sewing  accumulated  before  us!  A  sewing-bee,  volunteered  by  the  neigh- 
bors, reduced  the  quantity  a  little,  and  our  child-fingers  had  to  take  their 
part.  But  the  seams  of  those  sheets  did  look  to  me  as  if  they  were  miles 
long!    My  sister  Lida  and  I  had  our  'stint,' — so  much  to  do  every  day.  .  .  . 

"It  was  hardest  for  me  to  leave  the  garret  and  the  garden.  In  the  old 
houses  the  garret  w^as  the  children's  castle.  The  rough  rafters, — it  was 
always  an  unfinished  room,  otherwise  not  a  true  garret, — the  music  of  the 
rain  on  the  roof,  the  worn  seachests  with  their  miscellaneous  treasures,  the 
blue-roofed  cradle  that  had  sheltered  ten  blue-eyed  babies,  the  tape-looms 
and  reels  and  spinning-wheels,  the  herby  smells,  and  the  delightful  dream 
corners, — these  could  not  be  taken  with  us  to  the  new  home.  .  . 

"Our  house  [in  Lowell]  was  quickly  filled  with  a  large  feminine  family. 
.  .  .  We  helped  a  little  about  the  housework,  before  and  after  school, 
making  beds,  trimming  lamps,  and  washing  dishes.  The  heaviest  work 
was  done  by  a  strong  Irish  girl,  my  mother  always  attending  to  the  cooking 
herself.  She  w-as,  however,  a  better  caterer  than  the  circumstances  required 
or  permitted.  She  liked  to  make  nice  things  for  the  table,  and  having  been 
accustomed  to  an  abundant  supply,  could  never  learn  to  economize.  At  a 
dollar  and  a  quarter  a  w^eek  for  board  (the  price  allowed  for  mill-girls  by 
the  corporations)  great  care  in  expenditure  was  necessary.  It  was  not  in 
mv  mother's  nature  closely  to  calculate  costs,  and  in  this  way  there  came  to 
be  a  continually  increasing  leak  in  the  family  purse.  .  .  . 

"Her  difficulties  were  increasing,  and  I  thought  it  would  be  a  pleasure 
to  feel  that  I  was  not  a  trouble  or  burden  or  expense  to  anybody.  So  I 
went  to  my  first  day's  work  in  the  mill  with  a  light  heart.  The  novelty 
of  it  made  it  seem  easy,  and  it  really  was  not  hard,  just  to  change  the  bobbins 
on  the  spinning-frames  every  three  quarters  of  an  hour  or  so,  with  half  a 
dozen  other  little  girls  who  were  doing  the  same  thing.  .  .  . 

"And  for  a  little  while  it  was  only  a  new  amusement;  I  liked  it  better 
than  going  to  school  and  'making  believe'  I  was  learning  when  I  was  not. 
And  there  was  a  great  deal  of  play  mixed  with  it.  We  were  not  occu- 
pied more  than  half  the  time.  The  intervals  were  spent  frolicking  around 
among  the  spinning-frames,  teasing  and  talking  to  the  older  girls,  or  en- 
tertaining ourselves  with  games  and  stories  in  a  corner,  or  exploring,  with 
the  overseer's  permission,  the  mysteries  of  the  carding-room,  the  dressing- 
room,  and  the  weaving-room.  .  .  . 

1  Commons,  John  II.:  "A  Documentary  History  of  American  Industrial  Society." 
The  Arthur  H.  Cloak  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1910.    Vol.  2.  pages  328,  278. 


FROM  HOME  TO  FACTORY 


15 


"The  last  window  in  the  row  behind  me  was  filled  with  flourishing 
house-plants— fragrant-leaved  geraniums,  the  overseer's  pets.  They -gave 
that  corner  a  bowery  look;  the  perfume  and  freshness  tempted  me  there 
often.  Standing  before  that  window,  I  could  look  across  the  room  and  see 
girls  moving  backwards  and  forwards  among  the  spinning-frames,  some- 
times stooping,  sometimes  reaching  up  their  arms,  as  their  work  required, 
with  easy  and  not  ungraceful  movements.  On  the  whole,  it  was  far  from 
being  a  disagreeable  place  to  stay  in.  The  girls  were  bright-looking  and 
neat,  and  everything  was  kept  clean  and  shining.  The  effect  of  the  whole 
was  rather  attractive  to  strangers."  ^ 


Contrast  Lucy  Larcom's  happiness  in  the  mill  with  this  picture 
of  factory  life  in  the  same  town  twenty-five  years  later.  Do  you 
think  she  would  have  been  happy  under  these  thirteen-hour  day 
conditions  ? 

From  The  Harbinger,  Nov.  14,  1846,  p.  366.^ 
"...  We  have  lately  visited  the  cities  of  Lowell  and  Manchester,  and 
have  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  the  factory  system  more  closely  than 
before.  ... 

"In  Lowell  Hve  between  seven  and  eight  thousand  young  women,  who 
are  generally  daughters  of  farmers  of  the  different  States  of  New  England; 
some  of  them  are  members  of  families  that  were  rich  the  generation 
before.  ... 

The  operatives  work  thirteen  hours  a  day  in  the  summer  time,  and 
from  daylight  to  dark  in  the  winter.  At  half  past  four  in  the  morning  the 
factory  bell  rings,  and  at  five  the  girls  must  be  in  the  mills.  A  clerk,  placed 
as  a  watch,  observes  those  who  are  a  few  minutes  behind  the  time,  and 
effectual  means  are  taken  to  stimulate  to  punctuality.  ...  At  seven 
the  girls  are  allowed  thirty  minutes  for  breakfast,  and  at  noon  thirty  min- 
utes more  for  dinner,  except  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  year,  when  the 
time  is  extended  to  forty-five  minutes.  But  within  this  time  they  must 
hurry  to  their  boarding-houses  and  return  to  the  factory,  and  that  through 
the  hot  sun,  or  the  rain  and  cold.  A  meal  under  such  circumstances  must 
be  quite  unfavorable  to  digestion  and  health,  as  any  medical  man  will  in- 
form us.  At  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening  the  factory  bell  sounds  the  close 
of  the  day's  work. 

"Thus  thirteen  hours  per  day  of  close  attention  and  monotonus  labor 
are  expected  from  the  young  women  in  these  manufactories.  ...  So 
fatigued— we  should  say,  exhausted  and  worn  out,  but  we  wish  to  speak  of 

1  Larcom,  Lucy:  "A  New  England  Girlhood."  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston, 
■^'^^'^2  Commons,  John  R.  (editor):  op.  cit.,  Vol.  7,  pages  132-133. 


16 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


the  system  in  the  simplest  language — are  numbers  of  the  girls,  that  they  go 
to  bed  soon  after  their  evening  meal,  and  endeavor  by  a  comparatively  long 
sleep  to  resuscitate  their  w^eakened  frames  for  the  toils  of  the  coming  day." 


How  does  mill  life  in  Lowell  in  1846  compare  with  that  of 
another  New  England  district  in  1922?.  Have  you  ever  seen 
enough  of  factory  conditions  and  neighborhoods  to  judge  whether 
the  following  description  is  typical  of  factory  life  throughout  our 
country?  As  you  read  it,  try  to  decide  whether  it  seems  more 
modern  than  the  preceding  account  you  read,  and  if  so,  why? 

"On  the  main  street  which  winds  up  the  hill  [in  Natick,  Pawtucket 
Valley,  Rhode  Island]  the  French  families  live,  usually  four  families  to  a 
tenement,  all  exactly  alike,  distinguishable  only  by  the  little  black  num- 
bers over  the  doorways.  The  general  appearance  is  one  of  orderliness  and 
cleanliness  in  sharp  contrast  to  steel  towns  or  mining  communities.  For 
there  is  no  smoke  from  the  mill  to  dull  the  white  of  the  houses,  and  the 
paling  fences  in  front  of  them  are  kept  in  repair  by  the  mill.  Each  en- 
trance has  a  green  storm  door  to  keep  the  winter  out,  and  set  in  each  of 
these  is  a  diamond  of  glass  through  which  a  curtain  shows  often  a  bit  of 
hand-work  made  by  the  women  folk  within.    .    .  . 

"A  woman  comes  through  the  gate  and  empties  her  pan  of  water  into 
the  open  gutter  of  the  main  street.  She  is  large-boned  and  stout  and  her 
face  is  sallow.  More  than  thirty-five  years  ago  her  husband  came  from 
Belgium  to  work  in  the  mills  and  she,  his  sweetheart,  followed.  She  had 
come  from  a  'good'  family — school  teachers  and  not  mill  workers.  But 
she  could  not  speak  English,  so  she,  too,  went  to  the  mill.  Now  the  hus- 
band is  dead.  A  daughter  and  a  son,  both  weavers  who  average  $21  each 
for  a  full  week's  work,  support  the  mother  and  a  younger  sister  in  school. 
For  their  five  rooms  they  pay  $1  a  week  rent  taken  out  of  the  pay  envelopes 
at  the  mill.  In  the  kitchen,  which  is  the  main  front  room,  the  washing 
machine  is  busy  and  the  dinner  is  boiling  on  the  wood  stove.  Behind  is 
the  little  parlor,  seldom  used.  Silk  patchwork  quilts  give  it  color  and  on 
the  chair-backs  and  seats  are  covers  of  hand-made  lace.  The  drawers  of  the 
common  pine  dresser  are  opened  with  pride  to  show  old  world  handiwork 
laid  away.  Crocheted  rugs  cover  the  oilcloth  on  the  kitchen  floor.  'We 
need  them,'  the  daughter  explains,  'the  floor  is  so  damp.'  The  dirt  cellar 
below  is,  indeed,  constantly  damp  for  the  hill  behind  is  of  rock  and  drains 
off  to  the  uncemented  cellars  below. 

"In  the  mother's  bedroom  behind  the  kitchen'  where  the  carpet  is  up 
and  the  floor  scrubbed  white,  the  stuffing  of  a  mattress  lies  on  the  floor 


FROM  HOME  TO  FACTORY 


17 


exposed  to  the  air  and  sunshine  from  the  window.  It  is  fluffy  gray.  The 
woman  runs  her  hands  through  it.  'Nice,  clean.  C'est  le  mouton.  Tell 
the  lady.'  It  is  indeed  waste  from  the  woolen  mills  of  Belgium,  which 
she  brought  with  her  thirty-five  years  before.  And  each  spring  it  is 
opened  up,  aired  and  sewed  tightly  into  its  washed  covers  again. 

"The  daughter  is  full  of  charm,  bright,  intelligent.  What  does  she 
do  in  the  evenings?  There  is  the  church,  and  there  are  the  movies  at 
Arctic.  'And  we  go  to  the  city  sometimes — when  you  want  something  real 
nice;  and  to  the  movies  there  when  you  want  music  with  an  orchestra; 
there's  just  a  piano  at  Arctic'  ... 

''There  is  no  sewerage  system  in  any  of  the  villages  and  the  majority  of 
the  tenements  are  still  without  running  water,  lighting  systems  or  any 
sanitary  conveniences.  Where  there  are  no  drains,  waste  water  is  emptied 
in  the  street  or  scattered  over  the  grassless  yards.  Where  there  are  drains 
the  water  is  discharged  into  a  cesspool  in  the  rear  which  the  company  emp- 
ties once  a  week,  though  there  are  complaints,  among  the  Portuguese  for 
instance,  that  the  cesspools  sometimes  overflow.    .    .  - 

"The  inside  of  the  old  tenements,  the  old  ones  being  in  the  majority, 
are  in  most  cases  in  disrepair.  Plaster  is  falling,  fresh  paper  is  needed,  roofs 
leak.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  Portuguese  and  Italian  sections.  Where 
electric  lights  have  been  installed  and  drains  and  running  water  put  in,  rents 
have  been  raised  to  $1.75  a  week. 

"These  are  the  houses  where  the  workers  live.  What  of  the  mills  where 
they  spend  fifty-four  hours  a  week;  the  men,  in  some  cases,  fifty-six?    .    .  . 

"  'It's  too  hot  for  any  person  to  work  in  those  mills  fifty-four  hours,' 
said  a  town  physician  who  has  always  lived  in  the  villages.  'It's  not 
warm,  it's  hot.  Many  a  time  I've  seen  a  girl  come  out  of  the  mill  from  an 
atmosphere  of  92,  96  or  98  degrees,  her  hair  wet  from  the  sprinklers,  and 
then  stand  and  wait  in  the  cold  outside  for  the  car  that  runs  only  every 
half  hour.'    .    .  . 

"A  former  health  officer  of  the  Valley  says  that  the  mill  floors  in  some 
cases  are  not  washed  more  than  once  a  year.  The  law  is  very  lenient  about 
heating,  ventilation,  lighting,  fire  requirements  and  dangerous  machinery. 

"The  Valley  takes  advantage  of  the  fifty-four  hours  which  the  state 
allows  women  to  work.  I  asked  a  Portuguese,  out  making  his  garden, 
who  cooked  the  meals,  for  he  had  told  me  he  had  two  children  in  school 
and  that  he  and  his  wife  both  worked  in  the  mill.  'Oh,  he,'  pointing  to 
the  wife  who  stood  on  the  door  step  with  the  broom.  'He  get  up  five 
o'clock.  He  get  breakfast  and  go  mill  ten  minute  'fore  seven.  He  get  home 
twenty  minute  'fore  six.  He  cook  meal.' 
"  'And  you  help  I  suppose  ?' 

"  'Me?    No!   Who  want  do  somethin'  after  get  out  that  [old]  jail?'  "  ^ 


1  The  Survey,  July  1,  1922.     Pages  441-444. 


18 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


SUMMARY 

Write  in  your  notebook  the  main  steps  brought  out  in  these  readings  by 
which  industry  went  from  the  household  to  the  factory  and  the  mill.  You 
should  write  about  five  sentences.  In  deciding  what  the  steps  are,  don't  expect 
to  find  a  different  one  in  each  quotation.  You  may  find  in  some  cases  that 
two  or  three  quotations  illustrate  the  same  stage.  The  paragraphs  between 
the  quotations  may  give  you  clues. 


III.    THE  STARTLING  GROWTH  OF  CITIES,  1800-1922 

A.     WHERE  ARE  THE  PEOPLE  OF  AMERICA  LIVING? 

Turn  to  Fig.  3,  page  9  in  Part  II.  What  does  this  map  tell  you  about 
where  the  people  of  the  United  States  are  living?  Do  they  appear  to  be 
scattered  equally  over  the  whole  country,  or  are  they  concentrated  in 
particular  sections? 


How  does  Fig.  5  help  you  to  tell  where  our  people  are  living?  Is 
there  any  region  in  the  United  States  where  more  than  400  people  are 


20 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


living  to  the  square  mile?  What  states?  (There  is  an  identification 
map  on  page  7  of  Part  II  to  help  you  identify  the  states  and  countries.) 

Is  there  any  region  in  our  country  where  less  than  2  people  are  living 
to  the  square  mile?  What  states?  Have  you  any  idea  how  it  would  seem 
to  be  living  where  there  were  less  than  2  people  to  each  square  mile? 
Just  think  of  living  in  a  farm  house  where  you  would  have  to  walk  on  the 
average  more  than  a  mile,  probably  a  mile  and  a  half  or  2  miles  to  find 
another  house.  There  would  most  likely  be  6  or  8  people  living  in  the 
house.  (The  average  size  of  a  family  in  America  is  nearly  5.  Why 
should  we  expect  to  find  6  to  8  people  in  the  next  farm  house?) 

On  the  other  hand,  thinic  how  crowded  living  must  be  where  there 

are  more  than  400  people  to  the  square  mile  as  in  

(What  State?) 

That  must  mean  that  many  of  the  people  are  living  in  apartment  buildings, 
or  at  least  in  houses  that  are  very  close  together. 

Do  you  imagine  that  there  are  countries  in  the  world  where  people  are 
living  as  closely  together  as  they  are  in  our  state  of  Massachusetts, 

  to  the  square  mile?    Turn  forward  to  Part  II,  the  population 

map  of  Fig.  3,  page  9.  The  bar  graphs  under  the  map  give  you  the  facts 
you  need.    Are  there  any  whole  countries  where  the  people  live  so  crowded 


This  map  shows  the  percentage  of  the  population  that  is  urban  in  the 
different  states^ 

Fig.  6 


together  as  in  Massachusetts?  As  in  New  York  State?  As  in  Illinois. 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania?  Of  the  "eight  leading  countries"  listed  in  the  bar 
graph,  where  does  the  United  States  stand  in  density  of  population? 

1  From  Report  on  Population,  Vol.  I,  1920.     IT.  S.  Census. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 


21 


'^he  United  States  Bureau  of  the  Census  calls  any  community  of  less 
than  2500  people  a  ''rural"  community;  any  community  larger  than  that 
it  calls  ''urbar^'i' 

Fig.  6  shows  the  proportion  of  the  people  in  each  state  that  are  living 
in  communities  of  more  than  2500  people. 

Where  is  the  heaviest  population  in  our  country?  Where  is  the  pop-  j 
ulation  lightest? 

2.     SINCE  1800  THE  POPULATION  OF  ALL  INDUSTRIAL  COUNTRIES  HAS 
TENDED  TO  CONCENTRATE  IN  CITIES 

More  than  half  of  our  own  106  million  people  live  in  towns  and  cities, 
and  this  tendency  for  people  to  crowd  together  is  true  of  all  industrial 
countries.  But  dense  populations  are  a  comparatively  recent  thing.  Be- 
fore 1800  the  United  Kingdom  (especially  England  and  Scotland)  was  the 
only  country  that  had  a  large  population  of  its  people  in  cities. 

PERCENT  OF  POPULATION  IN  DIFFERENT  COUNTRIES 
IN  CITIES  OF  MORE  THAN  10,000  -  1801-1851-1891 

1851  1891 


Fig.  7 

See  Fig.  7.  In  what  countries  were  more  than  20  per  cent  of  the 
people  living  in  cities  of  10,000  or  more  in  1801?  In  which  were  less  than 
5  per  cent  in  such  cities  ?  O'^^'^''- 

Now  notice  that  in  practically  all  these  countries  cities  of  over  10,000 
population  grew  very  rapidly  after  1801.    Of  which  ones  is  this  not  true? 

(in  1891,  three  fifths  of  the  people  of  England  were  in  cities  of  10,000 
people  or  more.^  A  recent  estimate  reports  that  over  nine-tenths  of  her 
people  are  in  cities  nov^  It  doesn't  seem  possible.  Travelling  north  and 
west  from  London,  one  passes  through  scores  of  towns  and  cities  that  are 
practically  unbroken  by  agricultural  land.  "Only  six  per  cent  of  all  the 
English  people  are  engaged  in  farmi^ng[.i 


22 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


What  does  Fig.  7  tell  you  about  the  other  countries?  Does  it  shoW 
that  a  large  percentage  of  their  people  live  in  cities?  In  which  countries 
is  the  percentage  largest?  smallest?         ^  .  r ,  ^        ,  ^1 

C.      ALL  POPULATION  HAS  INCREASED  RAPIDLY  SINCE  1800 

We  must  not  forget  that  all  populations — not  only  city  populations, 
but  rural  as  well — have  increased  very  much  more  rapidly  since  1800  than 
before  that  time.    The  United  States  is  a  good  illustration  of  this  fact, 


1790     1800    1810     I8Z0     1830     !840     1850     1860     1870     1880     1890    1900    1910  1920 


Population  in  the  United  States  1790  to  1920 
Fig  8 

although  it  has  perhaps  grown  more  rapidly  than  most  other  countries. 
Fig.  8  shows  the  course  of  its  growth.  How  many  times  greater  is  the 
population  in  1920  than  it  was  in  1790  when  the  Census  Bureau  of  the 
government  first  counted  our  people?  How  slowly  our  country  grew  dur- 
ing the  first  sixty  or  seventy  years  after  we  declared  our  independence 


1020 

««I0 

•  800 

1800 

1880 

1870 

I860I 

I860 

1840 

1830 

1690 

1810 

IPOO 

i-rao 


IN  PLACES  WITH  8.000  OR  MOBS  POPCHJkTlOM 
OurSlOe   SUCH  PLACES 


Fig.  9 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 


23 


from  England,  but  how  rapidly  after  that!  From  what  you  already  know, 
can  you  tell  why  population  grew  more  rapidly  in  America  after  1840? 

Now  when  did  our  people  begin  moving  in  large  numbers  toward  the 
city?  Was  it  immediately  after  we  got  our  independence?  No.  Fig.  9 
shows  that  the  percentage  of  people  in  towns  of  8000  or  more  in  1790,  even  in 
1830,  was  very  small.  In  those  years  the  American  people  were  settling  the 
undeveloped  land  from  the  Appalachians  to  the  Pacific. 

To  the  Teacher:  In  Pamphlet  No.  1  of  Vol.  II,  The 
Westivard  Movement  and  the  Groivth  of  Transportation, 
you  will  find  a  map  showing  where  the  American  people 
had  settled  in  1790,  1810,  1830,  1850,  and  1890.  Let  the 
class  see  this.  It  shows  not  only  the  pushing  of  the  frontier 
westward,  but  also  how  the  increasing  concentration  of 
population  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  frontier. 

A  century  of  hardship  and  strenuous  labor  at  clearing  the  wilderness, 
settling  farms,  developing  roads  and  means  of  transportation,  was  necessary 
before  people  could  turn  their  attention  much  to  manufacturing.  Of  course 
all  through  the  ceentury  industry  had  been  making  rapid  strides,  but  as  late 
as  1891  only  27.6  per  cent  of  our  people  lived  in  towns  of  10,000  or  more. 
In  1920,  more  than  40  per  cent  lived  in  towns  of  such  size.  And  if  we  in- 
clude as  urban  population  the  people  who  live  in  communities  of  between  2500 
and  8000  people,  the  percentage  goes  up  to  over  fifty. 

HAVE  CITIES  AND  TOWNS  OF  ALL  SIZES  GROWN  RAPIDLY  SINCE  1890? 

Here  is  a  way  to  tell  which  sizes  of  community  have  grown  most  rapidly 
in  the  last  half  century.  Table  I  compares  the  urban  and  rural  population  of 
the  United  States  by  decades  from  1850  to  1910. 

Table  I. 

The  Estimated  Rural  and  Urban  Population  of  the  Untied  States ^ 
(Exclusive  of  Outlying  Possessions 


percentage  of  population 

Cities  and  Villages 


Census  of  year  Agricul-  Under  8,000  to  Over 

tural  8,000  100,000  100,000 

1850   40.6  46.9            6.5  6.0 

1860   40.3  43.6            7.8  8.3 

1870                             40.0  39.1          10.7  10.2 

1880   44.0  33.5            9.8  12.7 

1890                             39.2  31.8          13.6  15.4 

1900                             39.3  27.8          14.2  18.7 

1910                             34.6  26.5          16.8  22.1 


iData  from  King:  Wealth  and  Income  of  the  United  States.  The  Macmillan 
Company. 


24 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Between  1850  and  1900  did  the  proportion  of  our  people  engaged  in  agri-  • 
culture  decrease?    Between  what  years  did  the  percentage  of  our  people  in 
cities  increase  most  rapidly?    Which  size  of  communities  was  least  able  to 
hold  our  people? 

EXERCISE 

On  a  piece  of  cross-section  paper  make  a  line  graph  showing  the  following 
facts : 

1.  The  per  cent  of  our  people  who  lived  in  cities  of  more  than  100,000 
population,  1850  to  1910.    (Plot  by  decades.) 

2.  The  per  cent  living  in  cities  of  8,000  to  100,000. 

3.  The  per  cent  living  in  cities  under  8,000  population. 

4.  The  per  cent  of  our  population  that  in  1910  was  agricultural. 

E.      WHERE   ARE   THE   CITIES  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES? 
REVIEW    MAP  EXERCISE 

Without  turning  to  your  geography,  can  you  locate  the  largest  cities  of 
the  country?  Which  are  the  largest  cities?  See  if  you  can  locate  them  on  a 
physical  map  of  the  country. 

Now  Take  a  Blank  Mimeographed  Map  of  the 
United  States. 

1.  Locate  on  it  each  of  the  following  cities:  New  York,  San  Francisco, 
Seattle,  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  Baltimore,  Kansas  City  (Missouri), 
Boston,  Philadelphia,  Cleveland,  Minneapolis,  Denver,  Omaha,  Indian- 
apolis, Detroit,  Pittsburgh,  Buffalo,  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Portland  (Oregon.) 

2.  Exchange  papers  with  your  neighbor.  Correct  his  paper,  writing  the 
name  of  each  city  which  was  incorrectly  located  on  the  left  margin  of  the 
map.    Return  the  paper  to  its  owner  and  receive  your  own. 

3.  Now  learn  the  cities  whose  location  you  missed  by  the  same  method 
you  used  when  you  first  studied  them  in  the  pamphlet  on  America  and  Her 
Immigrants. 

You  should  now  be  able  to  locate  these  large  cities  accurately. 
What  general  conclusion  can  you  draw  concerning  the  location  of  large 
cities? 


What  is  your  answer  to  the  question :  What  size  of  community  is  grow- 
ing most  rapidly  in  America? 


A  PROBLEM  FOR  YOU 
Can  you  answer  the  foregoing  question  from  the  data  given  in  Table  II? 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 


25 


Table  II. 

Number  and  Population  of  Places  of  Each  Specified  Size 
1890-1920.1 

This  table  gives  facts  concerning  sizes  of  communities  as  the  Bureau  of 
Census  presents  them. 


class  of  places. 
Number  of  places  of  specified 
size : 

25,000  or  more  

100,000  or  more  

250,000  or  more  

500,000  or  more  

.  1,000,000  or  more  

Percentage  of  total  population 
living  in  places  of  specified 
size : 


250,000 


1890 

1900 

1910 

1920 

124 

160 

228 

287 

28 

38 

50 

68 

11 

15 

19 

25 

4 

6 

8 

12 

3 

3 

3 

3 

more  _ 

22.2 

25.9 

31.0 

35.7 

more- 

15.4 

18.7 

22.1 

25.9 

more 

11.0 

14.4 

16.8 

19.8 

more 

7.1 

10,6 

12.5 

15.5 

more 

5.8 

8.5 

9.2 

9.6 

—  ^ 

/  0  I.O 

F.     WHY  DO  CITIES  GROW? 
I. 

In  this  pamphlet  we  have  not  time  to  tell  the  whole  story  of  why  cities 
have  grown  so  rapidly  since  1800.  You  will  learn  more  about  it  from  the 
Eighth  Grade  Pamphlets.  At  this  time,  however,  we  need  to  see  a  few  of  the 
more  important  reasons.  Let's  try  first  to  answer  a  few  questions  from  our 
general  knowledge. 

First  of  all,  what  does  your  life  in  the  city  depend  upon  most?  You 
must  of  course  have  food  every  day.  Do  people  in  the  city  raise  the  food  they 
eat?  No,  they  depend  on  the  people  in  the  country  for  most  of  it.  How 
does  the  food  get  to  the  city  ?  Do  the  farmers  drive  into  town  as  they  used 
to  with  their  produce?  Yes,  with  some  of  the  vegetables  and  fruits  to  the 
small  and  medium-sized  cities,  but  not  with  the  staple  foods  such  as  meats, 
bread,  etc.  And  the  farmers  do  not  reach  the  large  cities  at  all.  For  them 
the  staple  foods  must  be  shipped  from  long  distances,  and  railroads  are  nec- 
essary. Have  railroads  grown  rapidly  since  1800?  At  what  date  did  the 
first  railroad  run  ?    How  fast  have  they  grown  ? 

The  time  line  of  the  Industrial  Revolution,  Fig.  10,  and  the  line  graph  of 
Fig.  1 1  will  tell  you. 

Figs.  12  and  13  give  you  the  same  facts  in  another  way. 

Have  railroads  grown  fast  in  the  period  we  are  considering — from  1800 
to  the  present  time  ?   Is  this  one  reason  why  cities  have  grown  ? 


From  Vol.  I,  Report  on  Population,  1920  census,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Commerce. 


26 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


>z:o 

ex  d|- 
Q  t 


uJ 

i: 
h- 


1879,  Aniline  dyes 

1876, Threshing  machine  (s+eamj 

1870,  Self  binding  reapers 
1866, Open  hearth  process  m  s+eel 

I860,  Artificial  means  of  refriger- 
ation 

1856,  Bessemer  process  in  steel 
J850,Coke  used  in  iron  smelting 


1844, Good^rear,  vulcanization  of 
rubber 


1835 ,  Threshing  machines 

(wind  and  water  power) 
t833 ,  Anthraci+e  coal  in  iron 

smelting 
1 831,  M^Cormick,  reaper 


1810. 


6 

'a,  1803, 


Beginning  of  beet  sugar 
industry 


Reapers,  American  machinesg 
CO 


5  1792, Whitney,  cotton  gin 
c 

1786,  Cartwright,  loom 

D 
X 

"tr  177  9.  Crompton,  spinning  mule 


1769, 


1760, 


ArUvvright,  spinning  machine 
Hargreave,  spinning  jenn_y 
Iron  smelted  with  coal 


1903  ,  Wnghi  brothers  successfully 
flew  In  an  areoplane 


189 1,  Langley,  areoplane 

1888,  New  camera, tastman-Wodaks 


Electric  railways  since  1879 
1879  ,  Edison, incandescent elec  light 
1878,  Brush,  arc-light 
1877,  Edison,  phonograph 
18 76, Bell,  telephone 

1871  ,  Soole  and  GHdden, typewriter 


1866.  Atlantic  cable 


1851, Archer, work  m  modern 
photography 

1544, First  teleigraph  message. 
l840,Cunard  steamship  line  begun 

1837  .First  telegraph  instrument 
1836  .Screw  propeller  ^ 


1829  .Cooper,  locomotive  s: 


■  -       -  Q, 


X  o 


1815  Davy,  coal  min.ng     5?'^  c 

safety  lamp  ' 
1 8 14,  Stephenson  .  locomotive 


1807 ,  Pulton'5  steanrboat 


17 98. Fitch's  steamboat 


769  ,  Wat-t  invented  steam  engine 


1748,  Paul  ,  carcdng  cylinder 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 


27 


II. 

What  do  people  do  for  a  living  in  cities  if  they  do  not  raise  food  ?  Does 
Fig.  12  tell  you  another  reason  why  cities  have  grown  recently?  Study  the 
time  line  of  Fig.  10.  What  inventions  can  you  find  there  that  helped  to 
cause  the  great  growth  in  manufacturing? 

Now  study  Fig.  11  closely.  What  facts  does  it  give  about  production 
that  tell  you  more  about  this  second  great  cause  for  the  growth  of  cities? 


260 
220^ 

I80e 
(40^ 

looi 

o 
_c 

20 
0 


-No. or  miles  of  railroaoi^ 
in  the  U.S.  1830  to  1914- 

1  1  1   1  1   1  1   1  1  1 

1 

-/- 
/ 

^m't  of  all 

domestic  Manu- 

factures  in  the  U.S. 

1- 

1860  to  1914--- 

/ 

-h 

1 

Years 


26 

3000 

^22 

250*0  ■ 

=  18 

o 
in 

.1  '0 

2000  2 
1500  o 
1000- 

6 

c 

2 
0 

500 
0 

.1  1  LLU  I  JJ 

Wealth 'per  p 
U.S.  |-|  1850 

erson'  in' t 
-|9Z1| 

e 

- 

Value  per  person  of  exports 

of 
ur 

all  c 
es  in 

ample 
the  L 

ted 
J.5. 

m 
I8f 

am 
0- 

fa 

:t- 
Q- 

Years 


^30 

_co  . 

l25 

c 

c20 

o 

|l5 

x: 
+:; 

CO  5 


O  IT) 


Fig.  12 


Fig.  13 


28 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Sum  up  now  what  you  think  this  second  important  cause  for  the  growth 
of  cities  was.  Perhaps  there  were  two  or  three  important  ones  bound  up  to- 
gether.   See  if  you  can  discover  them. 

As  population  increases,  communities  not  only  become  more  thickly  set- 
tled, but  their  territories  enlarge  very  considerably. 

The  city  starts  with  a  small  area,  usually  along  a  stream.  As  trade  and 
manufacturing  increase,  and  people  settle  more  thickly,  it  spreads  out  and  its 
confines  gradually  take  in  more  territory.  See  from  Fig.  14  what  has  hap- 
pened to  London  in  100  years.  About  how  many  times  as  great  is  the  terri- 
tory included  within  the  city  limits  now  than  100  years  ago?  Do  you  notice 
how  little  suburban  communities  which  originally  were  hamlets,  perhaps 
only  isolated  farm  houses  or  groups  of  them,  have  gradually  been  brought  into 
the"  city  proper  as  the  intervening  regions  filled  up  with  houses,  factories, 
stores  banks,  and  consequently  with  people?  They  are  all  tied  together  by 
means  of  A^J--.---v^^^W>^ ^  ?)•  This  tying  together  is 
represented  on  Fig.  14  by  J:LIc±.-.^__M^--^   (what  ?). 


A  CENTLRY. 

Tl,e  black  sLows  the  area  of  London  a  hundred  years  ago.  .he 
shaded  portion  the  growth  since  then 


Fig.  14 

Fig  15  shows  some  of  the  things  that  went  hand  in  hand  with  the  growth 
of  cities  Notice  how  much  faster  city  activities  grew  than  the  general  popu- 
lation. What  happened  as  far  as  the  number  of  farm-workers  was  con- 
cerned? Did  farm-workers  increase  or  decrease  as  the  number  of  city-work- 
ers  increased? 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 


29 


III. 

But  the  invention  of  industrial  machines,  the  development  of  manufactures, 
the  building  of  transportation  lines,  are  not  all  the  things  that  make  possible 
the  grow^th  of  large  cities. 

How  could  people  live,  work,  and  conduct  business  in  cities  of  such  tre- 
mendous area  without  communication  facilities?  It  is  a  great  deal  to  have 
subways,  rapid  elevated  trains,  excellent  taxicab  service,  but  even  with  these 

STARTLING  MULTIPLICATION  OF  FEATURES 
OF  CITY  AND  INDUSTRIAL  LIFE 

Growth  of  population  -  1  ■ 

Note  how  much,  more  rapidly  urban  and  industrial 
activities  have  (3rov\^n  ihan  population, lar^e  as  that  is. 

No.  of -times  fas+er,+han  populai-ion,each  of  followino|  has  cjrown 
No.wa^e  earners 

No.  miners 

No.  ci+^y  dwellers 

No.  clerks,  salesmen  and  typis+sl 

No.  corporations 

No.  banks 

No.  transport  workers 


Fig.  15 


business  could  hardly  be  done  on  the  scale  that  it  is  if  every  transaction  had 
to  be  carried  on  by  personal  interview.  How  much  business  would  a  Chicago 
merchant  or  banker  do  if  he  had  to  go  to  his  customers  ten,  twenty,  or  thirty 
miles  away,  though  they  were  within  the  same  city? 


Fig.  16 


Fortunately,  he  doesn't  need  to  go  to  them,  for  communication  has  kept 
pace  with  transportation  and  manufacturing  and  trade.  He  needs  only  to 
take  down  the  telephone  receiver  in  his  office,  wherever  it  is,  and  in  a  minute 
or  two  he  can  have  his  party  in  direct  conversation  and  conduct  his  business 
almost  as  effectively  as  he  could  if  he  were  sitting  in  his  client's  office.  Does 


30 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Fig.  16,  showing  how  the  number  of  telephones  has  speedily  increased  in  the 
last  twenty  years,  throw  any  light  on  how  the  factor  of  communication  has 
made  the  growth  of  cities  possible  ? 

But  cities  began  to  grow  long  before  the  telephone  was  widespread  in  use. 
What  have  you  to  say  to  that  comment  ? 

What  does  the  time  line  of  Fig.  10  tell  you  about  the  date  that  the  tele- 
phone was  invented?  About  how  many  telephones  are  there  in  this  country 
now?  (The  Bell  system  includes  the  vast  majority  of  all  telephones  in  the 
United  States.)  When  did  the  wide  use  of  telephones  really  begin?  How 
does  this  fact  correspond  with  what  you  know  about  the  time  when  cities 
began  to  grow  most  rapidly  ? 

IV. 

Does  Fig.  22  explain  in  part  why  New  York,  San  Francisco,  Boston,  and 
other  cities  have  grown  large  ?    Tell  how. 


Mew  York  330,549 


C^nadiaa  Border  1 13,406 


Mexican  Border  68,816 


Other  Small  Ports  49,192  gj 
5an  Francisco    ;2Z,698  | 


Boston 


17,007  I 


Number  of  Immigrants  Who  Entered  the  United  States  Through  Different  Ports 

in  1920. 
Fig.  17 


Make  a  summary  in  your  notebook  of  all  the  reasons  you  can  think  of 
for  the  growth  of  cities. 


G.     WHY  HAVE  CITIES  GROWN  WHERE  THEY  DID.'' 
MAP  EXERCISE 

Make  a  list  of  the  thirty  largest  cities  of  the  world.  (You  will  Hnd  the 
population  of  cities  given  in  the  tables  in  the  back  of  any  school  geography.) 

Now  open  your  geography  and  locate  each  city  on  your  list.  Those  that 
are  ports  mark  P ;  those  that  are  on  rivers  mark  R  ;  those  on  large  inland 
lakes  mark  L.    How  many  of  each  are  there? 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 


31 


How  many  of  the  thirty  largest  cities  in  the  world  are  not  on  waterwaysf 
If  there  are  any,  study  your  map  and  see  if  you  can  find  the  reasons  that  they 
grew  where  they  did. 

From  what  you  know  now,  what  would  you  say  were  the  most  important 
reasons  that  cities  have  grown  where  they  did  ? 

I.    The  Port  City 

(a)  SEATTLE 

We  have  already  found  out  that  most  of  our  chief  cities  are  on  import- 
ant waterways.  Those  that  are  not,  like  Denver  and  Indianapolis,  must  be 
studied  carefully  to  learn  the  cause  of  their  growth. 

Let  us  study  first  why  certain  port  cities  have  grown.  Seattle  is  a  good 
example.  Point  to  it  on  the  wall  map.  In  thinking  of  Seattle's  growth  we 
must  remember  that  people  did  not  settle  the  Oregon  and  Washington  coun- 
try in  large  numbers  until  after  our  Civil  War  was  ended  in  1865.  True,  a 
few  pioneers  went  over  the  Oregon  Trail  in  the  'forties  at  the  time  of  the 
great  rush  to  the  California  gold  fields,  but  no  transcontinental  railroads  con- 
nected even  California  until  1870,  and  the  northwest  coast  was  not  con- 
nected until  later.  So  trade  of  course  could  not  develop  rapidly  in  Seattle 
until  after  1880. 

Here  is  a  description  of  Seattle.  (In  reading  it  have  in  mind  that  it  was 
written  by  a  Seattle  enthusiast.    The  facts  in  it  are  correct,  however.)  . 

ITHIN  the  writer's  experience  of  less  than  35  years,  Seattle  was 
a  struggling  frontier  settlement  of  4,000  people,  without  a  rail- 
road, with  one  crude  wharf,  and  no  outside  trade. 

"Today  it  is  the  chief  American  port  on  the  Pacific,  a  virile, 
progressive  city  of  350,000  people,  and  for  the  year  1918  was 
second  only  to  New  York  in  volume  of  foreign  trade.  That 
it  is  to  become  one  of  the  dominating  world  cities  no  one  familiar  with  con- 
ditions questions.  The  census  figures  for  1920  are  315,652.  The  city  boun- 
daries have  not  been  enlarged  for  more  than  10  years  and  upwards  of  40,000 
people  reside  outside  of  the  present  restricted  city  limits. 

"Seattle  is  the  chief  city  of  that  portion  of  the  United  States  that  is  richest 
in  basic  resources — a  territory  with  millions  of  acres  of  farm  lands  that 
lead  the  nation  in  yield  per  acre;  with  the  only  coal  fields  in  the  Pacific 
states;  with  more  than  one-third  of  all  the  water  power  in  the  nation;  with 
the  largest  area  of  standing  timber  on  the  continent,  and  with  fishing  re- 
sources that  make  Seattle  the  chief  fisheries  port  of  the  world.  Seattle  is  the 
entrepot  and  market  place  for  Alaska;  which  has  more  gold  than  California, 
more  copper  than  Michigan  and  Arizona  combined,  more  coal  than  Pennsyl- 
vania, undeveloped  oil  fields,  the  only  tin  mine  in  the  United  States,  exten- 
sive marble  deposits,  the  richest  fishing  areas  in  the  world,  approximately 
60,000  square  miles  of  agricultural  land  and  a  total  area  equal  to  that  of 
Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  Finland,  in  the  same 
latitude  and  capable  of  supporting  an  equal  population  of  27,000,000. 

"Seattle  is  several  days'  sailing  nearer  the  Orient  than  are  the  Cali- 
fornia ports  and  is  the  Pacific  Coast  city  with  the  shortest  rail  haul  to  the  At- 
lantic seaboard.  Natural  location  definitely  fixes  Seattle's  position  in  the  trade 
of  the  Pacific  just  as  completely  as  it  does  her  relation  to  Alaska. 

"In  consequence.  Oriental  commerce  largely  centers  in  the  Washington 
customs  district,  which  leads  the  nation  in  importation  of  crude  rubber,  veg- 
etable oils,  raw  silk,  tea,  hemp,  and  all  Oriental  products.  Commercial 


32 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


developments  of  the  future  will  unquestionably  largely  be  with  Siberia, 
China,  and  the  countries  of  the  Far  East.  Seattle's  position  in  the  trade  of 
the  Pacific  is  as  unassailable  as  is  her  relation  to  Alaska."  ^ 

Why  Is  Seattle  Defeating  Other  Pacific  Coast  Cities  in  the  Race  for 

Asiatic  Trade? 

Study  the  map  of  Fig.  18.  Take  your  school  globe,  and  with  a  piece  of 
string  measure  the  distances  of  Pacific  coast  cities  from  ports  in  the  Orient? 
Now  why  do  you  think  manufacturers  are  tending  more  and  more  to  ship 
goods  from  Seattle  than  from,  say,  San  Francisco?  Why  are  travelers  to 
the  Orient  leaving  from  Seattle  in  increasing  numbers? 


The  "Great  Circle" 


Courtes3^     of     Seattle     Chamber  of 

Commerce  and  Commercial  Club, 
1920  publication. 

Fig.  18 


The  route  shown  on  the  map  of  Fig.  18  is  called  the  "Great  Circle" 
route.  Do  you  know  what  a  "great  circle"  is?  On  the  globe  that  repre- 
sents the  earth  find  and  trace  the  line  called  the  equator.  You  have  traced 
a  great  circle.  Now  trace  exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  equator  another 
great  circle.  What  two  important  points  on  the  earth  did  your  pencil  move 
through  in  tracing  a  great  circle  at  right  angles  to  the  equator? 

Turn  to  a  map  (on  Mercator's  projection)  in  your  geography  which 
shows  Seattle  and  Vladivostok.  The  shortest  route  between  these  two 
cities  is  on  the  line  of  another  circle,  and  this  happens  to  be  the  trade  route 
that  is  being  developed  between  Seattle  and  Asiatic  ports.  Do  you  see  from 
the  map  of  Fig.  18  how  this  works  out? 

Now  write  in  your  notebook  a  statement  of  what  a  great  circle  is. 

If  you  wanted  to  travel  by  the  very  shortest  route  from  any  port  city  of 

America  to  another  port  in  a  distant  part  of  the  world,  wliat  route  would  you 

try  to  follow  ?   Why  ? 

~Fr^m~ii  publication  of  the  Seattle  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  Commercial 
Club. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 


33 


Now  write  a  summary  in  your  notebook  of  the  reasons  why  Seattle  is  be- 
coming a  great  city. 

(B)    Other  Great  Port  Cities  of  the  United  States 

We  have  learned  how  one  city,  which  only  a  generation  ago  was  an  un- 
known little  community,  is  fast  becoming  one  of  the  great  world  ports.  What 
are  the  other  port  cities  of  the  United  States?  What  is  the  most  populated 
one?    Locate  it  on  the  wall  map. 

Name  three  other  port  cities  on  the  Atlantic  Coast.  How  do  they  rank 
in  population  with  other  cities  of  our  country?  What  do  you  think  is  an 
important  cause  of  their  large  population? 

There  is  a  very  important  map  to  study  in  this  connection — a  map  of  the 
ocean  trade  of  the  world.   Turn  to  it  now  on  page  42  of  Part  II. 

Where  is  the  heaviest  shipping  of  the  world?  Between  what  other 
country  and  ours  is  the  largest  trade? 

What  four  cities  of  the  United  States  are  receiving  the  Atlantic  trade? 
What  other  cities  of  our  country  have  grown  rapidly  because  they  are  ports? 

(C.)    What  Makes  A  Port  ? 

What  is  it  that  makes  a  port,  anyway?  Is  it  just  ships  entering  the 
harbor  ?  Why  do  ships  go  to  certain  places  like  New  York,  Seattle,  Galves- 
ton, Baltimore,  San  Francisco,  New  Orleans,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia? 
Why  do  not  large  numbers  of  them  go  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  or  Norfolk,  Va., 
or  St.  Augustine,  Fla.  ? 

Geographers  tell  us  that  a  city  on  the  ocean  cannot  become  a  great  port 
unless  several  things  are  true  of  it.  First,  it  must  have  a  good  harbor;  second 
it  must  have  a  large  "hinterland"  to  draw  trade  from;  and  third,  it  must  be 
near  Europe. 

1.    A  PORT  MUST  HAVE  A  GOOD  HARBOR 

Why  a  good  harbor?  Ships  must  have  a  place  where  they  can  tie  up 
against  a  wharf  and  stay  for  days  at  a  time  at  anchor  in  quiet  water.  In  set- 
tling new  country  men  always  go  along  the  coast  until  they  find  bays  and 
inlets  where  the  land  runs  out  and  protects  the  water  behind  it.  That  was 
one  reason  why  the  English  settled  at  Boston  (it  has  a  harbor).  That  is  a 
reason  that  New  York  and  Long  Island  and  the  opposite  Jersey  shore  were 
settled  early  by  the  Dutch  (1609).  San  Francisco  grew  up  where  it  did 
largely  because  of  the  Golden  Gate  and  the  Bay.  The  description  you  read 
of  Seattle  commented  on  the  excellence  of  its  harbor. 

Does  it  seem  to  you  that  geographers  are  right  in  emphasizing  the  im- 
portance of  a  protected  harbor? 

A  good  harbor  means  more  than  quiet  water;  it  means  a  deep  channel 
running  close  to  shore  so  that  great  ships  can  enter  even  at  low  tide.  A 
channel  40  feet  deep  at  low  tide  accounts  for  New  York's  supremacy  as  a 
harbor.  Furthermore,  the  range  of  the  tide  is  only  4  to  5  feet  which  is  another 
reason  for  her  harbor's  superiority. 


34 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Finally,  the  anchorage  space  of  the  New  York  harbor  is  among  the  largest 
in  the  world.  An  airplane  map  of  the  city  shows  its  docks  running  more 
than  20  miles  on  both  sides  of  the  North  River  (Hudson  River)  and  the 
East  River,  as  well  as  on  the  Long  Island  side.  Look  in  your  geography  for 
pictures  of  this  harbor  and  of  others.-^ 


2.    A  PORT  MUST  HAVE  A  HINTERLAND 

A  city  does  not  grow  up  just  because  people  settle  on  the  shore  of  a 
quiet  harbor.  Cities  represent  people — people  at  work.  For  people  to  live 
close  together  there  must  be  agriculture,  manufacturing,  and  trade.  So 
as  we  look  back  over  a  hundred  years  at  the  history  of  our  cities  we  see 
how  their  growth  went  hand  in  hand  with  the  development  of  manufacturing 
and  trade. 

See  how  well  Fig.  19  illustrates  this. 


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1920 


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1900 


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Fig.  19 


It  is  inconceivable  that  Chicago's  population  could  have  reached  nearly 
3  million  without  a  great  growth  in  manufacturing  and  trade.    But  while 


lAtwood'R  "Geography."  Book  II.  Ginn  &  Co..  has  excellent  airplane  maps  of 
many  cities,  and  the  requisites  of  ports  are  made  clear. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 


35 


some  people  manufacture,  others  farm,  so  to  be  complete  the  hinterland — the 
"land  behind"  the  port— must  be  agricultural  land.  Did  the  account  of 
Seattle's  growth  mention  its  being  in  or  near  a  great  farming  region? 

What  about  the  hinterland  of  Chicago,  our  second  greatest  city?  Turn 
to  your  geography  and  read  the  discussion  of  the  section  dealing  with  the 
middle  western  states.  Perhaps  you  will  find  it  under  Central  Plains,  or 
"Great  Plains."  Turn  through  the  pictures  too.  Do  the  stories  of  farms, 
ranches,  tractors,  wheat  fields,  dairies,  corn  fields,  coal  mines,  help  you  to 
understand  why  Chicago  grew  and  how  it  was  possible  for  a  great  city  to 
grow  up  at  the  South  end  of  Lake  Michigan?  Wheat  and  flour,  corn,  canned 
goods,  coal,  swine,  cattle,  mules,  oats,  barley,  fruit — ^^these  are  the  words  you 
will  find  written  over  the  middle  western  states  on  economic  maps.  Find 
one  in  your  geography.  Turn  to  page  5  of  Part  II  of  this  pamphlet  for 
other  examples. 

Now  Chicago's  hinterland  is  as  far  as  her  buyers  can  reach  to  bring 
in  goods  to  be  handled,  manufactured,  consumed,  or  shipped  to  other  places. 

MAP  EXERCISE 

Take  a  blank  map  of  the  United  States  and  sketch  on  it  what  you  think 
is  Chicago's  hinterland.  What  do  railroad  lines  have  to  do  with  it?  What 
do  lake  boats  and  river  steamers  have  to  do  with  it?  Do  you  imagine  that 
the  hinterlands  of  American  cities  have  enlarged  any  as  our  railroad  web 
has  grown  thicker  ? 


32  of  the  50  Cities  over  100,000  in  Population  are  in  the  Industrial  Zone, 
which  is  shown  as  the  blackened  portion  between  the  broken  lines. 


Fig.  20 


36 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Turn  forward  to  the  railroad  map  of  page  69,  Part  11.  Do  you  notice 
any  relationship  between  the  lines  of  the  railroads  and  the  location  of  our 
cities?  What  have  railroads,  hinterland,  and  the  growth  of  cities  to  do  with 
each  other  then? 

NEW  YORK'S  HINTERLAND 

New  York  is  probably  the  greatest  trading  city  in  the  world.  We  have 
seen  that  one  reason  is  its  remarkable  harbor.  Another  is  that-  it  is  the 
natural  outlet  to  Europe  for  the  manufactured  products  of  the  great  indus- 
trial zone.  The  map  of  Fig.  20  shows  this  industrial  zone.  (Because  so 
many,  82  per  cent,  of  our  immigrants  live  there,  it  is  also  called  the  "im- 
migration zone.") 

In  this  industrial  zone  are  America's  great  coal  fields  and  iron  mines. 
About  90  per  cent  of  the  coal  and  iron  produced  in  the  United  States  comes 
from  this  region.  In  the  states  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio,  are  also 
thousands  of  acres  of  our  best  agricultural  lands.  Compare  the  region  with 
the  concentration  of  population  as  shown  on  Figs.  5  and  6. 

Now  study  the  relief  map  of  Fig  21  and  decide  where  transportation 
routes  from  the  Middle  West  and  this  industrial  zone  could  best  break 
through. 

Does  this  suggest  a  reason  why  all  port  cities  need  not  be  near  to  Europe 
in  order  to  be  large  ? 

We  cannot  take  the  space  here  to  tell  the  story  of  how  New  York, 
Boston,  Baltimore,  and  Philadelphia  raced  for  more  than  half  a  century 
for  the  trade  of  the  west  beyond  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  That  story  is 
told  fully  in  The  W estward  Movement  and  the  Growth  of  Transportation} 
Here  we  must  leave  it  to  you  to  decide  how  it  happened  that  New  York 
beat  the  other  cities  and  secured  the  lion's  share  of  the  trade.  Use  the  re- 
lief map  of  Fig.  20  and  the  railroad  and  economic  maps  that  are  in  your 
geography.    Have  in  mind  such  points  as  these : 

(1)  The  importance  of  valleys  and  easy  routes  of  transportation;  (2) 
the  possibility  of  digging  canals;  (3)  the  railroads  actually  built;  (4)  dis- 
tances from  the  west;  (5)  regions  from  which  railroad  trunk  lines  take 
products. 

J.     NEAREST  TO  WHAT  CONTINENT  ARE  THE  PORTS  THAT  HAVE  GROWN 

MOST  RAPIDLY? 

Turn  ahead  to  the  map  of  the  ocean  trade  of  the  world,  page  42  of  Part 

II.    Do  you  agree  with  geographers  who  insist  that  those  ports  situated 

nearest  to  1..  were  sure  to  grow  most  rapidly?  Why? 

(what  continent) 

1  Pamphlet  No.  1  of  the  Eighth  Grade  Series  of  "The  Social  Science  Pamphlets;" 
gectioiis  XIII.  XVIIT.  and  XIX. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  CITIES 


38 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


EXERCISES  FOR  PUPILS  ON   OTHER  CITIES 

To  the  Teacher:  With  these  illustrations  in  hand,  we 
suggest  that  you  assign  to  individual  pupils  the  task  of 
making  a  graph  showing  the  increase  in  population  of 
particular  cities  since  their  beginning,  or  since  1790  for 
some,  and  of  reporting  to  the  class  the  causes  for  the 
growth  of  these  cities.  Statistics  of  populations  for  par- 
ticular cities  are  to  be  found  in  Vol.  I,  Population,  of  the 
1920  Census  Report,  Bureau  of  Census,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Assign  cities  which  represent  different  types  of  growth,  . 
e.  g.,  port  cities  showing  a  slow,  steady  growth;  perhaps 
a  rubber  city  like  Akron,  Ohio ;  an  automobile  city  like 
Detroit;  an  inland  city  like  Denver;  a  boom  (oil)  city 
like  Tulsa,  Okla.  cities  that  have  "petered  out";  etc. 
Bring  out  the  causes  that  account  for  the  growth  and  de- 
cline of  cities. 

Your  teacher  will  assign  you  cities  on  which  to  collect  data  and  make  > 
graphs.    Follow  the  directions  she  gives  you. 


Now  prepare  a  summary  for  your  notebook,  in  which  you  bring  together 
the  chief  points  that  you  have  learned  about  cities. 


IV.    TRANSPORTATION— CRUCIAL  TO  CITY  AND 
COUNTRY. 


1.     WHAT  HAPPENS  TO  CITIES  WHEN  RAILROADS  BREAK  DOWN? 

In  Part  II  there  is  a  vivid  account  of  what  happened  to  Russia's  cities 
in  1918  to  1920,  written  by  the  famous  English  writer,  Mr.  H.  G.  Wells. 
It  is  a  story,  by  an  eye  witness,  which  shows  that  great  cities  can,  in  the  space 
of  but  three  or  four  years,  dwindle  in  size  and  go  quite  to  pieces. 

Turn  next  to  page  66  of  Part  II  and  read  the  account  as  far  as  page  71. 


So  this  is  what  happens  to  cities  when  the  normal  course  of  affairs  in 
peace  times  is  upset.  Do  you  have  any  fear  for  the  cities  of  America?  Is 
it  thinkable  that  what  happened  to  the  people  of  Petersburg  in  1913  to 
1921  could  happen  to  the  people  of  Chicago  or  San  Francisco  or  New  York? 

Does  this  picture  bring  home  to  you  the  intricacy  of  the  machine  upon 
which  life  depends  if  you  live  in  the  city?.  Does  it  lead  your  mind  to  a 
picture  of  scores  of  railroad  trains  running  through  the  night  between  small 
communities  and  cities  carrying  millions  of  gallons  of  milk  to  be  used  next 
day  by  the  babies  and  the  grown  ups  of  thousands  of  communities  scattered 
over  America?  Do  you  see  fresh  vegetables  dumped  into  the  great  central 
markets  of  our  cities  and  distributed  in  the  early  morning  hours  over  the 
^  different  parts  of  the  community  by  wholesalers  and  by  the  little  corner 
grocery  which  serves  you?  Do  you  see  tens  of  thousands  of  refrigerator 
cars  drawing  cold-storage  meat  (which  had  been  grown  in  the  far  west  and 
slaughtered  in  Kansas  City  or  Chicago)  into  the  wholesale  markets  of 
Boston,  Baltimore,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco,  and  Seattle?  Do  you 
see  hundreds  of  thousands  of  freight  cars  heaped  high  with  bituminous  coal 
from  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  West  Virginia,  or  anthracite  from  Pennsyl- 
vania dumped  in  the  yards  of  thousands  of  great  power  plants,  railroad 
terminals,  or  local  coal  dealers,  ready  to  run  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
factories,  locomotives,  and  to  heat  several  million  homes  of  the  United 
States?  Do  you  see  train  despatchers,  telegraph  operators,  division  super- 
intendents, workmen,  guarding  carefully  the  road  bed  of  the  railroad, 
officials  in  their  offices  deciding  cautiously  important  matters  upon  which 
hinges  the  security  of  handling  your  food  and  coal,  and  upon  which,  in 
turn,  hinges  the  very  safety  of  your  life? 

What  an  incredibly  complicated  scheme  we  have  built  up  in  an  indus- 
trial country  like  America  to  carry  on  the  work  of  our  great  cities !  And  how 
completely  it  all  depends  upon  transportation ! 


40 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Would  what  happened  to  Vienna  and  Petersburg  happen  to  our  cities 
if  our  railroads  stopped  running?  If  our  coal  supply  was  shut  off?  If  food 
could  not  get  to  the  city  ? 

Discuss  in  your  class  what  would  take  place  in  an  American  city  if 
such  things  happened. 

2.      WHERE  DOES  THE  FOOD  ON  YOUR  DINNER  TABLE  COME  FROM? 

To  the  Teacher:  In  preparing  for  this  exercise,  we 
suggest  that  you  have  pupils  obtain  copies  of  railway 
folders  from  several  of  the  different  railroad  systems  of 
the  country:  New  York  Central;  Pennsylvania;  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford;  Chesapeake  and  Ohio; 
Northern  Pacific;  Union  Pacific;  Southern  Pacific;  Grand 
Trunk;  Canadian  Pacific;  Oregon  Short  Line;  and  others. 
Each  of  these  will  give  a  map  of  a  particular  system  and 
will  be  very  helpful  in  showing  pupils  the  scope  of  our 
railway  systems  and  how  dependent  on  them  we  are. 

To  secure  a  clearer  idea  of  the  very  complicated  scheme  our  lives  depend 
upon,  work  out  the  following  exercise  in  class. 

Tell  the  teacher,  so  she  can  write  a  list  on  the  blackboard,  the  foods  you 
had  on  your  dinner  table  yesterday.  Did  you  have  meat?  What  kind?" 
Where  do  you  think  it  came  from?  Open  your  pamphlet  to  the  map  of 
the  American  railways,  Part  II,  page  69;  also  open  your  geography  to  a  map' 
showing  railways,  states,  cities,  and  towns  in  the  United  States.  Trace  the 
probable  route  by  which  your  meat  came,  and  be  able  to  show  the  route 
to  the  class  on  the  wall  map. 

Does  Fig.  22  help  you  ? 

In  the  same  way  trace  the  route  of  the  vegetables  you  had  for  dinner. 
Turn  forward  to  Part  II,  page  5,  and  use  Fig.  1  to  help  answer  the  next 
question. 

Did  you  have  potatoes?  Is  this  region  you  live  in  a  good  potato  region? 
Perhaps  farmers  right  near  yodr  town  raise  them  and  bring  them  into  the 
local  grocers.  Can  anyone  tell  the  class?  There's  a  "potato  map"  on 
page  13  of  Part  II.  Does  the  United  States  produce  many  potatoes,  as  com- 
pared to  other  countries? 

Bread  ?  Of  course.  Hardly  a  dinner  table  in  America  is  without  bread. 
That  is  the  world's  great  staple  food.  Was  it  "white"  bread  you  had,  made 
from  wheat  flour?  Where  did  the  wheat  probably  come  from?  (See  page 
5  Part  II.)    Trace  the  route  on  the  wall  map. 

Did  you  have  any  vegetables?  Is  it  the  right  season  for  fresh  vegetables? 
Do  farmers  near  your  home  do  "truck"  gardening,  raising  tomatoes,  sweet 
corn,  peas,  beans,  and  other  vegetables?  If  so,  how  do  they  get  them  to- 
the  markets  of  your  city?  By  horse-drawn  wagon?  Are  the  roads  good 
outside  the  city?  Do  the  farmers  use  motor-trucks?  Have  the  roads  been 
macadamized  in  recent  years?  Do  you  see  how  this  has  anything  to  do> 
with  marketing  food  stuffs  and  manufactured  goods? 


transportation:    a  key  industry 


41 


What  about  fruit?  Grapefruit?  Oranges?  Bananas?  Apples?  Find 
out  where  they  probably  come  from,  and  trace  what  seems  to  you  to  be  the 
best  route. 

Perhaps  you  will  find,  as  some  pupils  did  in  New  York  State  last  year, 
that  the  apples  they  were  eating  came  all  the  way  from  Oregon,  when  apples 
could  have  been  obtained— very  good  ones,  too— right  within  their  own 
state!    We  will  study  later  how  such  a  queer  thing  could  have  happened. 


Where  It  Comes  From 


One  small  dot  represents 
5,000  beef  cattle  on 
farms,  only  a  portion  of 
which  become  meat  in 
the  course  of  a  year. 

Large  dots  show  the  location  of  principal  slaughtering  centers. 


42 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Just  now  we  are  interested  to  learn  that  things  on  our  dinner  table  may 
come  from  very  far  away.  Yet  we  depend  on  their  being  on  hand  in  the 
city  each  day.  We  take  for  granted  they  are  at  the  store  when  we  go  to 
buy  them  or  order  them  over  the  telephone. 

Was  coffee  served  on  your  dinner  or  breakfast  table  yesterday?  Where 
do  you  think  it  came  from?  Figs.  10  and  11  on  page  17  of  Part  II  will  tell 
you.  Do  we  raise  any  coffee?  Where  does  it  come  from?  Trace  on  the 
wall  map  the  way  you  think  it  might  have  been  shipped  to  us. 

Do  this  for  any  other  food  you  had  for  yesterday's  dinner. 

What  part  of  the  food  in  your  dinner  was  raised  right  in  your  local 
community?  What  part  just  outside  in  nearby  towns?  What  came  by 
train  from  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  miles  away? 

Do  you  see  how  dependent  we  in  the  towns  and  cities  are,  on  our  great 
transportation  system? 


3.      NOTE  TO  REMIND  YOU  THAT  THE  USE  OF  COAL  AND  THE  LOCATION  OF 
OUR  INDUSTRIES  DEPENDS  ON  TRANSPORTATION  ALSO 

You  have  now  seen  how  the  food  that  we  eat  in  our  towns  and  cities 
depends  upon  transportation.  Of  course  other  things  that  are  very  im- 
portant in  our  lives  depend  on  transportation  too.  Coal  to  heat  our  homes, 
to  supply  motive-power  for  our  locomotives  and  power  plants  in  thousands 
of  factories.  This,  to  be  useful,  must  be  transported  from  the  mine  to  the 
points  all  over  the  country.  Iron  ore  must  be  taken  from  Minnesota  and 
Wisconsin  mines  to  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Pennsylvania  steel  mills.  Lumber 
must  be  brought  from  our  forest  regions  to  other  sections  where  factories 
and  mills  are  waiting  to  make  it  up  into  finished  products.  Manufactured 
products  of  all  sorts  and  kinds  must  be  moved  from  factory  to  warehouse,  to 
store  and  finally  to  consumer.   And  it  all  depends  on  transportation. 

The  best  place  to  discuss  this  matter  is  in  connection  with  the  consideration 
of  coal  and  industries,  so  we  will  not  take  it  up  further  at  this  time. 

4.  A  picture  story  of  a  century  of  transportation 
In  many  ways  our  transportation  system  today — railroads,  steamboats, 
canal  boats,  motor  highways — is  quite  remarkable.  We  have  grown  up  so 
much  in  the  midst  of  it,  however,  that  we  fail  to  see  how  unusual  it  really  is. 
If  you  could  think  back  only  100  years  to  a  time  when  there  were  no  trains, 
no  canals,  no  automobiles,  no  airplanes,  no  great  steamboats,  you  would 
see  more  clearly  what  great  changes  have  come  in  just  three  generations. 

We  have  assembled  some  pictures  that  will  give  you  a  rapid  sketch  of 
these  changes.  Perhaps  you  can  find  at  home  or  in  books  or  magazines  in 
the  library,  pictures  which  will  help  your  class  to  understand  how  trans- 
portation grew  up  in  our  country.  The  whole  story  is  told  quite  fully  in 
Pamphlet  No.  I  of  the  Eight  Grade  Series,  The  JVestward  Movement  and 
the  Growth  of  Transportation. 


transportation:    a  key  industry 


43 


On  the  trail  in  the  early  days^ 
Fig  23. 

No.  1.  Following  the  Revolutionary  War  the  "Conestoga  wagon" 
was  one  of  the  most  used  land  "freighters".  It  carried  the  goods  of  west- 
ward-moving pioneers  over  the  Appalachians  1790  to  1820;  of  the  rest- 
less settlers  of  the  Ohio  Valley  who  moved  into  the  Mississippi  Valley 
states  in  the  1820's,  1830's,  1840's  and  1850's;  and  of  the  "forty-niners" 
who  went  to  the  California  and  Oregon  ciuntry  in  the  '  850's  and  1860's 
Not  until  1870  was  there  a  transcontinental  railroad  tying  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  coasts  together. 


"I  kept  on  swinging  through  the  deserts  . 

the  Concord  stage,"  ^ 
Fig.  24 


in  the  'boot'  of 


No.  2.  The  Conestoga  wagon  carried  the  family's  freight  as  well 
as  the  family  itself;  the  Concord  stage  came  only  after  roads  had  been 
blazed,  poor  as  they  were.  The  use  of  these  coaches  followed  in  the  wake 
of  the  V^^estward  Movement.  The  Pennsylvanians  used  them  on  the 
Lancaster  Pike  about  1800;  they  rolled  in  hundreds  on  the  National 
(Cumberland)  Road  from  1820  to  1840,  through  Maryland,  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  Ohio;  similar  vehicles  were  used  in  the  Middle  West  a  gen- 
eration later.  They  came  before  the  railroad,  held  on  while  it  was  being 
perfected,  but  went  out  of  use  as  it  became  a  cheap,  rapid,  and  com- 
fortable way  to  travel.  10  to  20  miles  a  day  on  the  stage,  800  miles  a 
day  on  the  railroad ! 


1  Reproduced  with  permission  from  "The  White  Indian  Boy"  by  E  N  Wil*?oTi 
and  Howard  R.  Driggs,  page  1.    Copyrighted  by  The  World  Book  Company.' 

2  Reprinted  with  permission  from  "The  White  Indian  Boy,"  bv  Wilson  and 
Copyrighted  by  the  World  Book  Company.  ^   wiison  and 


Driggs. 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


A  line  of  motor  trucks  waiting  to  move  up  to  the  doors  of 
the  Sacramento  River  warehouses  at  Princeton,  California 
Fig.  25 

No.  3.  Finally  soon  after  the  passenger  automobile  became  a  reality 
in  the  early  1890's  the  motor  trucks  appeared  as  a  cheap  and  rapid  means 
of  transporting  freight.  With  them  both  came  astonishing  improvements 
in  roads,  exceeding  the  gains  that  had  been  made  when  the  stage  lines 
were  laid  out  and  the  National  road  was  built.  Hundreds  of  millions 
of  dollars  are  now  being  spent  yearly  for  macadamized  Joads.  Merchan- 
dize of  all  sorts  and  kinds  are  shipped  by  truck  on  hauls  as  long  as  sev- 
eral hundred  miles.  Contrast  the  hundred-and-fifty  mile-a-day  haul  of 
1922  with  the  ten-mile-a-day  haul  of  1890!  On  which  do  you  think 
freight  would  be  least  damaged? 


This  is  the  "Tom  Thumb,"  an  engine  built  by  Peter  Cooper  in  1829. 
It  actually  went ! 
Fig.  26  ' 

No.  4.  After  people  had  moved  things  cumbersomely  for  thousands 
of  years,  men  finally  invented  an  engine  that  would  travel  on  rails. 
The  "Tom  I'luimb"  is  one  of  the  first  attempts.  After  succeeding  in 
making  the  thing  go,  inventors  very  soon  learned  how  to  improve  it.  The 
next  picture  No.  5,  shows  how  much  progress  was  made  in  10  years. 

1  From  "The  AiuericjiH."  Feb.,  1!)21.     National  City  Bank,  New  York  City. 


transportation:    a  key  industry 


45 


The  locomotive  in  this  train  was  used  about  1838-40.  It  has  a  lamp  head- 
light but  no  cab  for  the  engineer.  Notice  that  they  burned  wood  in  those  days.  What 
curious  cars  they  had  ! 

Fig.  27  i 


Fig.  28  2 

No.  5.  We  have  not  space  to  give  you  pictures  of  the  whole  story, 
but  here  is  one  that  tells  how  much  men  have  learned  in  a  century  of  rail- 
road building.  Compare  heavy  steel  rails  of  1921  with  the  stone  and  iron 
rails  of  1829;  the  16  to  20  wheels  of  today's  locomotive  with  the  four 
fragile  ones  used  in  1829.    How  the  smoke  stack  has  dwindled  in  size  and 

1  From  Dunbar,  Seymour:  "A  History  of  Travel  in  America,"  Vol.  Ill,  page 
25.    Bobbs- Merrill  Company,  Indianapolis. 

2 From  "The  Americas,"  Feb.,  1921.    National  City  Bank,  New  York  City. 


46 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


the  boiler  has  enlarged!  One  engine  (1839)  hauled  a  few  lightly-loaded 
cars  at  a  snail's  pace;  the  other  (1921),  a  string  of  fifty  or  more,  each 
laden  with  tons  of  freight. 


Fig.  29 ' 


No.  6.  On  water  as  on  land  man  has  learned  better  ways  how  to 
transport  things.  In  the  days  when  people  were  using  the  Conestoga 
wagon,  they  depended  for  their  dowm-river  traffic  on  the  sturdy  fiatboat. 
Millions  of  pioneers  floated  down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Rivers  on 
varieties  of  arks — broad-horns,  barges,  packets — in  the  years  between 
1800  to  1850.  Curious  things  they  w-ere,  "combinations  of  log-cabin,  fort, 
floating  barnyard  and  country  grocery,"  housing  men,  women,  children, 
horses,  pigs,  chickens,  cow^s,  dogs,  kegs  of  powder,  dishes,  furniture,  and 
what-not. 


Towing  a  canal  boat  on  the  western  level  stretches  of  the  Erie  Canal. 

Fig.  30  2 

No.  7.  About  the  time  that  Conestogas  were  rumbling  into  the  Ohio 
Valley  and  Stages  were  whizzing  along  the  National  Road,  easterners 
were  digging  Canals  to  bring  the  growing  trade  of  the  west  to  the  eastern 
cities  of  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.  The  Erie  Canal,  1825, 
joining  the  Hudson  River  and  Lake  Erie,  was  America's  only  successful 
canal  until  the  Panama  Canal  was  built.  But  America  has  spent  her 
time  making  railroads  and  her  canals  have  amounted  to  little.  We  are 
way  behind  Europe  in  this  respect 


1  Reprinted  with  permission  of  Bobbs-Merrill  Co.  from  Dunbar,  op.  cit.,  Vol.  I, 
papre  2f)2. 

2  From  Dunbar,  ibid.    Vol.  II. 


transportation:    a  key  industry 


47 


A  Mississippi  steamer.; 
Fig.  311 

No.  8.  Later  in  the  1840's  and  1850's  and  1860's  came  the  river  steam- 
boat. Fitch  did  much  to  invent  it  and  make  it  go  way  back  in  the  1790's 
in  Pennsylvania;  Fulton,  Livingstone  (1807),  and  Vanderbilt  (1830  to 
1870),  made  it  a  commercial  success  on  the  Hudson  and  other  eastern 
rivers.  About  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  thousands  of  them  plied  up  and 
down  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Rivers  carrying  both  freight  and  pas- 
sengers.   They  were  slow  and  dangerous  things  to  travel  in. 


Automobiles  Sent  By  River  Highways  to  Relieve  the  Railway  Congestion 
Michigan  manufacturers  have,  it  is  stated,  sent  barge-loads  of  automo- 
biles, as  shown  in  the  photograph,  from  St.  Louis  to  Cincinnati  and  other 
points,  whence  they  will  proceed  to  their  destinations  on  their  own  power. 
The  freight-car  shortage  is  thus  relieved. 

Fig.  32  ^ 

No.  9.  As  the  latest  word  in  river  freight,  this  shows  how  far  we 
have  grown  from  the  days  of  the  flatboat.  On  the  Great  Lakes  and 
larger  rivers  of  America  today  thousands  of  small  but  powerful  tug- 


1  Reproduced  with  permission  of  Bobbs-Merrill  Co.  from  "A  History  of  Travel  in 
America,"  by  Seymour  Dunbar,  Vol.  II,  page  402. 

2  Courtesy  of  the  Outlook. 


48 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


boats  and  steamers  are  "towing"  millions  of  tons  of  freight.  This 
shipment  of  manufactured  goods  such  as  automobiles  by  river  boat  is 
exceptional.  Generally  only  heavy  raw  materials,  like  iron  ore  or  coal 
are  shipped  this  w'ay.  The  lighter  things  go  by  railroads;  it  is  quicker 
but  more  expensive.  Transportation  by  water  has  nearly  always  been 
much  cheaper  than  by  railroad. 


Fig.  33 


No.  10.  Finally  in  summary  fashion  here  is  90  years  of  develop- 
ment m  transatlantic  shipping.  From  the  little  "clipper"  sailing  ship, 
"Dreadnaught"  (we  smile  at  the  name)  of  1835,  we  see  the  first  successful 
attempt  at  a  steam  ocean  travel  in  the  sidewheel  "Brittania"  of  1839. 
Stages  of  improvement  are  shown  in  the  iron  screw  ships  "Borossia," 
1857,  and  "Arizona"  in  1887,  the  steel  screw  ship  "Oceanic,"  1900.  The 
climax  appears  in  the  giant  "Leviathan"  1914,  formerly  the  German 
"Vaterland." 


5.    America's  railroad  system  :  vast,  speedy,  luxurious 

All  Africa  has  -  29,000  miles  of  railroad. 

All  Asia  has  69,000  miles  of  railroad. 

All  Europe  has  217,000  miles  of  railroad. 

The  United  States  alone  has  270,000  miles  of  railroad.^ 

Is  there  any  doubt  in  your  mind  as  to  which  country  has  carried  the  con- 
struction of  railroads  furthest?  Our  foreign  visitors  may  well  marvel  at 
the  bigness  of  our  railroad  system,  the  speed  of  our  trains,  the  convenience  of 
the  service,  and  the  comforts  of  -travel.  America's  railroads  in  number  of 
miles  and  rate  of  speed  are  greater  than  those  of  any  other  country  in  the 
world. 

A  Country  of  Great  Territory  Must  Have 
Ties  to  Bind  Her  People  Together 

Railroads— l^lephones— Telegraph— Postal-  Service— Good  -  Roads— 
Newspapers— Magazines— are  some  of  these  ties.  •  Turn  forward  to  the  map 
of  page  69  in  Part  H.  Here  you  have  the  vast  network  of  the  railroad  system 
of  the  United  States  before  your  eyes.  See  how  it  reaches  in  all  directions 
touching  practically  every  community  of  any  considerable  size  in  the  whole 
country.    The  railroad  is  one  of  the  greatest  ties  for  binding  together  a  people 

milea^^e  hwm' A  nuM-U./r'''""  ^'"^^^^  ^^^^^^         three-fourths  of  the 


TRANSPORTATION  I     A  KEY  INDUSTRY 


49 


that  are  spread  out  over  a  large  stretch  of  territory.  And  one  of  the  most 
impjartant  facts  for  you  to  remember  is  that  the  people  of  the  United  States — 
106,000,000  in  number — are  spread  out  over  an  area  that  is  almost  as  large  as 
all  of  Europe  put  together. 

Turn  to  the  population  m.ap  of  Fig.  3  on  page  9  in  Part  II.  Compare 
carefully  the  area  of  the  United  States  with  that  of  Europe.  You  w^ill  find 
the  area  of  the  United  States  in  the  second  bar  graph  of  Fig.  3,  and  the  area 
of  Europe  and  the  other  continents  in  Fig.  32A  on  page  82  of  Part  II. 

Which  of  the  leading  countries  is  spread  out  over  the  largest  territory? 
Do  you  think  it  would  be  as  easy  and  natural  for  the  people  of  California, 
Maine,  Florida,  and  Texas  to  feel  as  though  they  were  one  people — just 
Americans — as  for  the  people  of  different  parts  of  England  to  feel  that  they 
were  all  English?  or  for  the  people  of  the  different  parts  of  France  to  feel 
that  they  were  all  French?  and  the  Germans?  the  people  of  Switzerland? 
of  Denmark?    of  Holland  ?    of  Belgium? 

Do  you  think  the  size  of  a  country  in  number  of  square  miles  has  anything 

to  do  with  this  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  being  one  people? 

What  has  it  to  do  with  it  ? 
i 

What  have  railroads  and  telephones,  telegraphs  and  automobiles,  news- 
papers and  magazines,  to  do  with  this  feeling? 

To  the  Teacher:  At  this  point  there  is  an  opportunity  to 
have  the  class  see  the  importance  of  this  question.  Point 
out  to  them  how  great  distances  in  a  country  like  the 
United  States,  Russia,  China,  make  it  difficult  to  develop 
a  real  spirit  of  unity.  Also  make  it  clear  to  them  how  the 
different  ties,  such  as  we  have  mentior\ed,  have  brought 
'  about  an  astonishing  amount  of  unity  in  spite  of  the  natural 

obstacles.  For  example,  show  how  the  government  edu- 
cated our  people  in  1916-17  to  want  to  enter  the  World 
War  by  a  widespread  campaign  through  newspapers,  mo- 
tion pictures,  and  other  ways. 

EXERCISE 

Where  Are  the  Important  Railroad  Lines? 

In  the  exercise  on  "Where  the  food  for  your  dinner  table  comes  from," 
you  studied  the  location  of  the  more  important  railroad  lines  of  the  country. 
People  in  Atnerica  should  really  know  where  these  railroads  are  in  order  to 
understand  things  that  are  happening  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Table 
III  gives  a  list  of  the  larger  trunk  lines  of  the  country,  together  with  the  ap- 
proximate number  of  miles  of  track  in  each  system. 


50 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Table  III  No.  of  Miles 

•   1.  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  (with  allied  lines)  7,000 

2.  New  York  Central  (with  allied  Vanderbilt  lines)  23,000 

3.  Pennsylvania  (with  allied  lines)  14,000 

4.  Southern  Railway  (with  allied  Morgan  lines)  29,000 

5.  Northern  Pacific  (     ^^..^^          j^.jj  28,000 

6.  Great  Northern  \ 

7.  Union  Pacific  (with  allied  lines,  formerly  Harriman's)  34,000 

8.  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  (with  allied  lines)  10,000 

9.  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  (with  allied  lines)  11,000 
10.  Southern  Pacific  (with  allied  lines)  •  10,000 

166,000 

'These  ten  railroad  systems  control  about  65  per  cent  of  all  our  railroad 
^mileage.  | 

MAP  EXERCISE 

1.  On  a  blank  mimeographed  map  of  the  United  States  draw  approxi- 
mately the  route  covered  by  each  of  these  systems.  Trace  these  in  so  as  to  show 
the  cities  and  regions  that  they  connect  and  the  general  region  they  provide 
transportation  for. 

2.  Exchange  papers  with  a  neighbor  and  correct  his  work.  Write  on 
the  left  margin  of  the  paper  the  name  of  any  railroad  which  is  clearly  placed 
in  the  wrong  region.  We  are  trying  only  to  learn  the  approximate  location 
of  these  systems. 

3.  Return  your  neighbor's  paper  and  receive  your  own,  Now^  learn  the 
location  of  any  route  that  you  may  have  missed  by  studying  the.  maps  in  the 
railway  folders  or  a  large  railroad  map  if  you  have  one  in  your  class  room. 

To  the  Pupils 

Can  anyone  in  the  class  obtain  a  large  map  of  the  United  States  which 
will  show  the  principal  railroad  lines  ?  If  so,  it  will  be  very  helpful  to  have 
it  hanging  in  the  room  all  the  time.  Our  lives  probably  depend  more  upon 
the  railroads  than  on  any  other  industry,  so  we  should  know  the  important 
facts  about  them. 

£XERCISE  TO  SHOW  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  RAILROADS  IN  OUR  LIVES 

These  days  the  magazines  (like  The  Outlook,  The  Literary  Digest,  The 
Independent,  The  Industrial  Digest,  and  others)  and  the  daily  newspapers 
contain  many  articles  about  our  railroads.  Bring  to  class  clippings  from 
them  which  will  show  the  importance  of  railroads  in  our  daily  lives.  No 
doubt  each  of  you  knows  things  that  have  happened  recently  which  pertain 
to  railroads.  Tell  the  class  any  anecdotes  that  you  can  gather  at  home  or 
from  other  places. 


transportation:    a  key  industry  51 


When  you  have  some  leisure  for  reading  about  our  railroads  here  are  some 
interesting  books  on  the  subject : 

To  the  Teacher:  We  suggest  that  one  or  two  class  exer- 
cises be  spent  upon  such  topics  as  (1)  Railroads  and 
steamships  as  freight-carriers;  (2)  The  provision  of  rail- 
roads for  the  safety  of  their  passengers;  (3)  The  work  of 
various  employees  of  transportation  lines,  such  as  the  en- 
gineer, the  conductor,  and  the  train  despatcher;  the  pilot 
and  the  captain  on  steamships;  (4)  How  our  railroads 
and  inland  waterways  help  our  trade;  (5)  What  trans- 
portation means  to  the  farmer,  the  business  man,  and  the 
city-dweller.  The  following  books  will  be  helpful  for 
these  exercises: 

1.  Allen,  Nellie  B. :  United  States.  Ginn  &  Company. 
New  York,  1910.    Pages  43-53. 

2.  Carter,  Charles  F. :  When  Railroads  Were  Neiv. 
Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York,  1910. 

3.  Chamberlain,  James  F. :  Hoiv  We  Travel.  The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  New  York,  1918. 

4.  Crump,  Irving:  The  Boys'  Book  of  Railroads.  Dodd, 
Mead  &  Co.,  New  York,  1921. 

5.  Fisher,  Elizabeth  F. :  Resources  and  Industries  of  the 
United  States.    Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  1919.    Pages  200-219. 

6.  Howdon,  J.  R. :  The  Boys  Book  of  Railroads.  Fred- 
erick A.  Stokes  Company,  New  York,  1909. 

7.  Hungerford,  Edward:  The  Railroad  Problem.  Par- 
ticularly Chs.  3-6.    A.  C.  McClurg,  Chicago,  1917. 

8.  Mowry,  W.  A.  and  Mowry,  A.  M, ;  American  In- 
ventions and  Investors.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  New  York, 
1900.    Pages  187-244,  258-277,  286-297. 

9.  Rocheleau,  W.  F. :  Great  American  Industries — 
Transportation.    A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chicago,  1914. 

10.  Tappan,  Eva  M. :  Travelers  and  Traveling. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1916. 

11.  Washington,  William  D.:  Progress  and  Prosperity, 
National  Educational  Publishing  Company,  New  York 
1911. 

6.     DOES  AMERICA  USE  HER  WATERWAYS? 

Have  you  ever  talked  to  a  foreigner  who  was  visiting  our  country  for  the 
first  time?  What  do  foreigners  say  about  our  ways  of  transporting  people 
and  freight?  First  of  all,  they  marvel  at  the  thousands  of  miles  of  rail- 
roads extending  from  coast  to  coast ;  then  at  the  heavy  locomotives  and  the 
long  trains.  They  are  amazed  at  our  train  schedules,  the  frequency  of  trains 
from  place  to  place,  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  travelling  by  night, 
our  Pullmans  and  porter  service.  They  are  surprised  at  not  finding  first, 
second,  and  third  class  coaches  with  a  different  fare  for  each  as  in  their  own 
countries.  And  they  can  hardly  believe  that  they  can  check  their  baggage 
when  they  buy  their  tickets,  and  that  it  will  be  transferred  from  place  to  place 
without  any  concern  on  their  part  and  reach  their  destination  when  they  do. 
In  all  countries  of  Europe  the  passenger  must  see  that  his  baggage  is  put  on 
the  train  he  takes,  and  if  he  transfers  to  another  train  that  his  baggage  goes 
with  him ;  there  is  no  one  to  look  out  for  it  but  himself.  So  we  are  very 
proud  of  our  railroads  before  foreigners. 


U.OFaL.LtB. 


U,  OF  ILL  LIB. 


52 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


But  while  we  boast  of  our  railroads,  they  have  something  else  to  boast 
about  which  might  put  us  to  shame.  They  look  at  our  lakes  and  rivers  and 
ask  why  we  are  so  wasteful  of  the  cheapest  method  of  transportation  there  is  ? 
You  have  already  seen  examples  of  the  fact  that  we  do  use  our  Great  Lakes 
and  many  of  our  rivers,  but  Europeans  say  we  do  not  begin  to  use  them  for 
transportation  as  much  as  we  could,  and  they  point  out  that  the  United  States 
is  abundantly  supplied  with  waterways.  While  the  American  people  have 
been  occupied  in  building  up  a  tremendous  system  of  railways,  the  Europeans 
have  been  developing  their  waterways  and  they  ask  us  why  we  have  hot  de- 
veloped ours.    Why  haven't  we? 

Turn  back  to  the  relief  map  of  Fig.  21  and  study  it  with  Fig.  34  which 
shows  the  navigable  streams  and  canals  of  the  United  States.  (For  a  stream 
to  be  navigable  it  must  have  a  deep  enough  channel  for  freight  and  passenger 
vessels  to  pass  through  it.) 

Why  do  these  rivers  take  the  direction  they  do  ? 

Trace  on  your  wall  map  the  direction  in  which  the  following  rivers  flow : 
(1)  Mississippi,  (2)  Missouri,  (3)  Connecticut,  (4)  Hudson,  (5)  Monon- 
gahela,  (6)  Delaware,  (7)  Susquehanna,  (8)  Alleghany,  (9)  Illinois,  (10) 
Red. 

If  you  were  asked  to  tell  in  a  sentence  where  the  navigable  waterways  of 
the  United  States  are,  how  would  you  tell  it? 

Do  you  see  any  relation  between  where  the  waterways  are  and  where  the 
American  people  are  ?   Make  a  statement  telling  what  the  relation  is. 

MAP  EXERCISE 

1.  On  a  mimeographed  map  of  the  United  States  which  traces  the  rivers, 
but  does  not  name  them,  locate  the  following  rivers,  lakes  and  canals :  Hud- 
son, Superior,  Mississippi,  Delaware,  Huron,  Missouri,  Connecticut,  Erie, 
Sacramento,  Columbia,  Ontario,  Red,  Michigan,  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  St. 
Lawrence,  Potomac,  Erie  Canal. 

2.  Exchange  papers  with  your  neighbor.  Correct  his  paper,  writing  in 
the  left-hand  margin  the  name  of  each  river  or  lake  incorrectly  located.  Re- 
turn his  paper  and  receive  your  own. 

3.  Learn  the  location  of  each  river,  lake,  or  canal  which  you  missed. 

To  the  Teacher  :  Following  this  exercise  we  suggest  that 
you  have  a  brief  wall  map  exercise,  reviewing  the  loca- 
tion of  these  rivers  and  lakes,  and  recalling  the  answers 
to  questions  asked  through  this  section. 

Now  locate  each  of  these  rivers,  lakes,  and  canals  on  the  wall  map  in 
your  class  room. 


54 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


How  Extensive  Are  Our  Inland  Waterways? 
The  United  States  has  about : 

25,000  miles  of  navigable  rivers 
25,000     "      "   rivers  that  can  be  made  navigable 
2,120     "      "  canals 
2,500     "      "   sounds,  bays,  etc. 

1,100     "      "   canals  can  be  added  by  connecting  bays  and  sounds 
along  the  coast. 

Thus  we  have  a  total  of  55,000  to  60,000  miles  of  inland  waterways. 

Does  your  study  of  the  relief  map  of  Fig.  21  and  of  the  map  of  navigable 
rivers,  Fig.  34,  tell  you  why  we  have  so  many  miles  of  rivers  in  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  Valley  regions,  and  so  few  west  of  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri, 
Arkansas,  and  Louisiana  ?   Tell  the  class  what  you  think  is  the  reason. 

We  found  that  the  greatest  proportion  of  our  people  are  concentrated  in 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  country?  Why  are  there  not  more  people  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  regions  since  there  are  so  many  rivers  there?  What  are 
the  principal  kinds  of  work  done  by  the  people  who  live  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley?  What  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people  in  the  northeastern 
zone  ? 

Navigation  of  Rivers  and  the  Location  of  Cities 

Study  Fig.  34  again.  Do  you  notice  how  sharply  the  rivers  all  along  the 
Atlantic  coastal  plain  break  off  at  certain  points?  Trace  each  one  beginning 
in  the  extreme  south  at  Columbus,  Mississippi,  then  Tuscaloosa  and  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.,  Macon,  and  Augusta,  Georgia.  Why  is  the  river  that  Carters 
is  on  navigable  so  far  from  its  mouth,  while  the  river  that  Augusta  is  on  is 
navigable  for  only  such  a  short  distance  from  its  mouth  ? 

Now  find  Columbia  and  Camden,  S.  C. ;  Fayetteville,  N.  C. ;  Richmond 
and  Fredericksburg,  Va. ;  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  and  Tren- 
ton, N.  J.  On  the  map  of  Fig.  34  draw  a  line  connecting  each  of  these 
cities. 

Why  Did  These  Cities  Grow  Up  Where  They  Did  ? 
And  Why  Are  These  Rivers  Navigable  Up  to  These  Points? 

The  geographers  call  the  line  such  as  you  have  just  drawn  THE  FALL 
LINE.  Does  the  name  tell  you  what  it  means?  The  "Fall  Line"  is  the 
line  that  connects  the  places  on  rivers  w^here  "water-falls"  occur.  It  also 
connects  the  first  city  or  town  (on  the  way  from  the  mouth  to  the  source) 
of  each  river.  Study  the  relief  map.  Fig.  21,  again.  Do  you  see  about  where 
the  line  you  have  drawn  would  appear  on  this  relief  map? 

When  the  first  P^nglish  colonists  came  to  America  in  1607  (landing  at 
Jamestown,  Va.),  in  1620  (landing  at  Plymouth,  Mass.).  and  usually  in 
tlie  decades  following,  they  sailed  into  the  bays  and  inlets  along  the  coast  and 


transportation:    a  key  industry 


55 


up  the  rivers.  When  the  Virginia  colonists  went  inland  to  settle,  they  went 
by  boat  up  the  James  River  as  far  as  the  falls.  Many  of  them  stopped  there 
and  settled,  although  a  few  pioneers  pushed  on  into  the  interior  highlands — 
into  what  was  known  as  the  "back  country."  So  at  the  "falls"  in  the  James 
River  a  village,  later  the  city  of  Richmond,  grew  up. 

Philadelphia  was  settled  in  the  same  way  by  those  who  attempted  to  go 
up  the  Schuylkill  River  and  were  stopped  by  falls  there.  Similarly  Balti- 
more was  located  miles  inland  from  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  Trenton,  New 
Jersey,  grew  up  where  it  did  largely  because  of  the  falls  on  the  Delaware 
River.  So,  too,  with  Macon,  Ga.  and  Montgomery,  Ala.  and  Columbia,  S.. 
C. ;  the  falls  in  the  rivers  were  one  of  the  chief  causes  for  the  location  of  all 
these  cities. 

Comparison  of  Inland  Waterways  in  America  and  Europe 

See  if  you  can  find  a  map  in  your  geography  which  shows  the  navigable 
rivers  and  canals  of  Europe.  Notice  how  the  Germans,  the  French,  the  Eng- 
lish, and  the  Austrians  have  dug  canals  between  their  rivers.  The  Vistula, 
the  Oder,  the  Elbe,  and  the  Weser  are  all  connected  by  canals  with  the  Rhine 
region.    Locate  each  of  these  rivers  on  your  wall  map. 

Canals  make  it  possible  for  the  merchant  of  Prussia  to  ship  goods  across 
country  to  the  Rhine  River  by  water  without  disturbing  the  bulk  of  his 
freight  traffic.  (Over  what  route  would  the  bulk  of  his  traffic  be  shipped  to 
Amsterdam  if  he  lived,  say  in  Hamburg?)  Large  sums  of  money  have  been 
spent  in  Europe  on  straightening  rivers  and  deepening  channels,  with  the  most 
important  result  that  goods  can  be  shipped  by  direct  routes,  where  the  distance 
is  shorter,  instead  of  going  by  the  roundabout  route  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  Isn't 
it  interesting  to  see  how  business  people  are  always  trying  to  find  ways  to 
use  the  most  direct  routes  to  those  sections  of  a  country  or  a  continent  that 
are  thickly  settled  ?  The  building  of  canals  in  the  northern  region  of  Europe 
is  a  good  example  of  this. 

Turn  to  the  population  map  on  page  9  of  Part  IL  Do  you  see  how  dense 
the  population  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  Holland  and  Belgium  and  the  north- 
western part  of  Germany?  Notice  how  much  thinner  it  is  in  the  Vistula  and 
Oder  regions.  Can  you  see  any  connection  between  the  density  of  population 
and  the  building  of  canals  in  the  northern  part  of  Europe? 

Now  turn  forward  to  the  relief  map  of  the  United  States,  Fig.  21. 
Which  rivers  would  help  to  move  the  great  quantities  of  manufactured 
goods,  wheat,  corn,  etc.,  from  the  Middle  West  to  the  East  where  they  are 
partly  used  by  the  large  population  and  partly  shipped  across  to  Europe  ?  In 
which  direction  do  these  rivers  flow  ?  Does  their  direction  help  in  the  matter 
of  eastward  shipping? 

Why  is  the  direction  of  these  rivers  what  it  is?  What  does  the  "lay  of 
the  land"  have  to  do  with  it? 


56 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Can  you  see  a  reason  now  for  our  having  spent  billions  on  railroads  con- 
necting the  East  with  the  Middle  West  when  we  have  spent  only  millions  on 
the  improvement  of  our  waterways?  What  a  striking  comparison  is  brought 
out  by  the  next  table!  It  gives  you  the  number  of  miles  of  canals  in  the  sev- 
eral countries.  From  the  appendix  of  your  geography  fill  in  the  area  of 
the  countries.  How  does  the  area  of  the  United  States  compare  with  the 
area  of  the  other  countries? 

Table  IV 

No.  of  Miles  of 

Country  Area  Canals  in  1920 

t ranee    3052 

German^^  ^  500 

England    1202 

United  States   -   2120 

What  conclusion  do  you  draw  from  the  facts  of  Table  IV?  Have  we 
improved  our  inland  waterways  as  Europe  has  improved  hers? 

What  about  the  Great  Lakes?  Do  they  not  form  a  fine  east  and  west 
waterway?  Yes,  our  Great  Lakes  freight  traffic,  especially  in  ore,  coal, 
wheat,  and  other  grains,  is  truly  tremendous.  Ships  go  by  the  thousand 
through  the  lakes  and  the  locks  and  short  canals  that  have  been  built  around 
the  "falls"  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  and  Niagara.  (Find  these  on  the  map.)  The 
route  appears  to  be  open  clear  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  does  it 
not?  1700  miles  of  broad,  reasonably  straight  waterway.  But  there  are 
serious  drawbacks.  First,  the  channel  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  the 
locks  and  canals  are  only  deep  enough  to  take  boats  that  "draw"  14  feet  of 
water.  This  means  that  the  larger  ocean  freighters  cannot  go  clear  through, 
say  to  Chicago,  and  Duluth,  Minn.  Furthermore,  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
the  Lakes  are  so  far  north  that  they  freeze  over  for  three  months  during  the 
winter.  Do  you  see  a  reason  in  this  that  would  make  people  hesitate  to  spend 
money  to  improve  a  river  like  the  St.  Lawrence  and  to  build  locks  and  canals 
around  rapids  and  falls? 

The  worst  obstacle  has  been  the  Niagara  Falls.  It  is  between  what 
lakes  ?  You  will  read  much  about  the  way  the  Erie  Canal  was  built  a  hun- 
dred years  ago  (1817-1825)  and  how  people  hoped  that  it  would  permit 
ships  to  go  clear  through  from  the  west  to  the  ocean  and  so  over  to  Europe. 
But  the  ships  grew  in  size  more  rapidly  than  the  canal  grew  in  depth.  So 
even  today  ocean-going  traffic  through  the  Erie  Canal  has  not  developed  to 
any  great  extent.  Only  one-fiftieth  as  many  tons  of  freight  were  carried 
by  the  Erie  Canal  as  were  carried  by  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  at  the 
eastern  end  of  Lake  Superior.  The  heaviest  freighting  through  the  "Soo" 
Canal,  as  the  Superior  Canal  is  called,  is  iron  ore  going  from  the  mining 
region  of  Minnesota  to  the  eastern  steel  mills,  coal  being  carried  on  the 
return  trips. 


transportation:    a  key  industry 


57 


Do  you  see  how  much  handHng  of  cargoes  is  necessary  at  Buffalo  ?  Do 
you  see  a  reason  why  merchants  prefer  to  ship  by  the  railroads?   What  is  it? 


EXERCISE 

1.  Give  examples  to  show  what  happens  to  cities  when  railroads  break 
down. 

2.  On  a  blank  mimeographed  map  indicate  approximately  where  the 
food  on  your  dinner  table  comes  from. 

3.  Give  reasons  to  prove  that  each  of  the  following  things  depends  upon 
transportation. 

A.    1.  Cities;  2.  Factories;  3.  The  use  of  coal;  4.  Farms. 

4.  What  conclusions  do  you  draw  from  reading  A  Picture  Story  of  a 
Century  of  Transportation? 

5.  Make  a  httle  summary  which  will  answer  the  question:  Does 
America  use  Her  Waterways  W ellf 

6.  What  facts  that  you  have  read  indicate  that  America's  railroad  system 
is  vast,  speedy  and  luxurious? 

7.  Make  a  list  of  ways  in  which  people  and  goods  are  transported. 
How  would  you  predict  that  people  and  goods  will  be  carried  10  years  hence? 
25  years  hence? 

8.  What  do  you  think  should  be  done  to  improve  our  transportation 
system  ? 

9.  Complete  these  sentences : 

a.  Transportation  is  to  both  city  and  _   

b.  The  use  of    and  the  location  of   de- 
pends upon  transportation. 

c.  America's  railroads  in  of  miles  and  in  i  !   of 

J        greater    ,        ,  . 
speed  are  than  those  of  any  other  country  in  the  world. 

(Which?) 

d.  A  country  of  i,,  territory  must  have    to  bind 

her  people  together. 

consolidated 

e.  The  railroads  of  America  today  are  scattered      .  .  

independent   (^^w  many?) 
.,       ,          ■        ,          /  (Which) 
railroads  control  about    per  cent  of  all  our  railroad  mileage. 


58  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


f.  Most  of  our  mileage  is  concentrated  in  the  — A^S^h)^.  

 section  of  the  United  States. 

g.  While  Americans  have  developed  most  their  ..->_Lr:„^.5:^l 
 ,  the  Europeans  have  developed  most  of  their  r_.l-L^-_._- 


h.  The  navigable  rivers  are  chiefly  in  the  .C^-Q^dko_\._  section  of 
the  United  States. 

i.  Most  of  our  important  cities  are  located  on  —  

  ;  many  cities  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  are  located  on  v^^hat  is 

called  the  "ickkisL,.   " 

■  V 

j.    Water  transportation  in  America  is  handicapped  by  — _  --3 


10.  Prepare  a  summary  for  your  notebook  about:  Transportation — 
Crucial  to  City  and  Country. 


V.    COAL:    AMERICA'S  MOST  IMPORTANT  NATURAL 

RESOURCE 

INDUSTRIES  AND  CITIES  DEPEND  UPON  COAL 


BUT  WE  ARE  NOT  ON  STRIKE!" 

— Kirby  in  the  New  York  World. 


From  "Literary  Digest,  Sept.  9,  1922. 
Fig.  35 


What  is  the  most  important  conclusion  that  you  draw  from  .a  study  of 
this  cartoon  ? 


60 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


70,000  WORKERS  TO  LOSE  JOBS- 
FORD  ANNOUNCES  SHUT-DOWN- 
CLAIMS  COAL  SHORTAGE  AS  CAUSE 


Detroit,  Sept.  10,  1922.— The  Ford  Motor 
Car  Company  posted  notices  today  to  the 
effect  that  its  shops  will  shut  down  Sept. 
12th  for  an  indefinite  period,  unless  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  coal  can  be  secured.  .  . 

How  does  the  clipping  illustrate  the  importance  of  coal  in  our  lives?  Can 
you  think  of  any  natural  resource  or  any  industry  that  has  a  more  important 
relation  than  coal  has  to  our  daily  living? 

Can  you  find  other  newspaper  or  magazine  clippings  that  show  the  im- 
portance of  coal  ?  Read  them  to  the  class.  Post  them  on  the  Bulletin  Board 
in  your  class  room.    Make  notes  of  such  things  in  your  notebook. 


A  survey  of  twenty  New  York  State  municipalities  shows  only  one-tenth 
of  the  winter's  coal  needs  on  hand  and  a  hundred  schools  in  New  York  City 
are  said  to  be  without  coal. 


In  the  fall  of  1919  the  coal  miners  threatened  to  strike.  Presid,ent  Wilson 
appealed  to  the  men  not  to  do  this  on  the  ground  that : 

"It  is  recognized  that  the  strike  would  practically  shut  ofE 
the  country's  supply  of  its  principal  fuel  at  a  time  when  inter- 
ference with  that  supply  is  calculated  to  .create  a  disastrous 
fuel  famine.  All  interests  would  be  affected  alike  by  a  strike 
of  this  character,  and  its  victims  would  be  not  the  rich  only, 
but  the  poor  and  the  needy  as  well — those  least  able  to  provide 
in  advance  a  fuel  supply  for  domestic  uses. 

"It  would  involve  the  shutting  down  of  countless  industries 
and  the  throwing  out  of  employment  of  a  large  part  of  the 
workers  of  the  country.  It  would  involve  stopping  the  oper- 
ation of  railroads,  electric  light  and  gas  plants,  street  railway 
lines,  and  other  public  utilities,  and  the  shipping  to  and  from 
this  country.  .  .  ."  ^ 
How  does  this  quotation  show  our  dependence  on  coal? 


1  Based  on  the  facts  of  the  closing  of  the  Ford  factories  in  Sept.  1922 

2  "Plans  to  Meet  the  Coming  Coal  Famine."     Literary  Digest,  Sept.  9, 

^^^^^Quoied  from  a  statement  given  out  by  President  Wilson  Oct.  25,  l^lf.  th^e 
Chicago  Daily  New.s  Almanac  and  Yearbook,  for  1920.  page  754,  Chicago,  Illinois, 


1919. 


coal:  another  key  industry 


61 


"Henderson  deliver  any  coal  today,  Mary?"  inquired  William  Baker 
when  he  reached  his  home  in  Elizabeth,  New  Jersey,  after  a  long  cold  ride 
one  evening  in  early  February. 

"No,"  rephed  his  wife,  "He  says  the  ice  on  the  river  has  held  up  the  coal 
barges.  They  can't  get  up  to  the  wharves,  so  the  railroads  can't  deliver. 
There  should  be  plenty  of  coal  but  its  held  up  by  this  awful  weather  we've 
had  the  last  three  weeks." 

"Well,  I  don't  know  w^hat  we're  going  to  do.  Not  enough  in  the  bin  to 
last  more  than  today." 


HOW  EACH  1000  TONS  OF  COAL  IS  USED 


Fig.  36' 

What  does  Fig.  36  tell  you  about  the  way  in  which  the  lives  of  people  in 
cities  depend  on  coal  ? 

What  proportion  of  our  coal  supply  goes  to  heating  our  homes?  What 
to  running  our  factories  and  mills?  What  percent  to  keeping  our  railroads 
going?  Notice  that  13  per  cent  goes  to  making  coke.  One  of  the  largest 
uses  of  coke  is  in  smelting  iron  ore. 

What  do  you  think  would  happen  to  the  iron  and  steel  business  if  our 
coal  supply  gave  out? 

What  proportion  of  the  coal  mined  is  used  up  in  the  very  mining  of  the 
coal  itself? 

What  proportion  do  we  ship  out  to  other  countries  ? 


^  Courtesy  of  Tndu.strial  Digest,  August  19,  1922. 


62 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 
THE  COAL  SHORTAGE  OF  1922 


The    Nation's    Swiftly    Diminishing    Coal  Pile 


Courtesy  of  "Industrial  Digest,"  July  8,  1922 
On  April  1  the  total  coal  reserves  of  the  country  were  63,000,000  tons. 
The  normal  rate  of  consumption  is  now  10,000,000  tons  a  month  in  excess 
of  production  from  non-union  mines.  The  minimum  reserve  for  safety  is 
20,000,000  tons;  the  lower  graph  shows  a  condition  that  might  result  the 
second  week  in  August  if  meanwhile  steps  are  not  taken  to  end  the  coal  dead-_ 
lock.  If,  after  this  turning  point  early  in  August,  reserves  continue  to  be 
depleted,  industrial  production  will  have  to  be  curtailed.  ^ 

Fig.  37 

Do  you  remember  in  the  coal  famine  of  1918-1919.  how  factories  closed 
and  children  were  kept  out  of  school?  how  we  could  not  go  to  theatres  in 
the  evening  and  how  Sunday  services  in  the  churches  were  not  held  for  weeks? 

From  April  1922,  when  the  miners'  strike  was  declared,  the  country  was 
rushing  nearer  to  danger  month  by  month.  Fig.  37  shows  how  the  coal 
pile  rapidly  dwindled.  The  figure  was  printed  in  July  to  show  what  would 
happen  if  the  strike  continued  until  October.  It  actually  ended,  however,  in 
September,  but  by  that  time  what  had  happened  to  our  reserve  of  mine  coal? 
If  the  strike  had  not  been  settled  when  it  was,  what  would  have  happened  to 
our  factories  and  railroads?  Which  would  have  stopped  running  first?  Why 
was  the  "coal  pile"  growing  smaller  during  the  hot  summer  months? 

Have  you  still  the  idea  that  most  of  our  coal  is  used  for  heating  buildings, 
so  that  the  winter  is  the  time  to  worry  about  a  coal  shortage? 

Our  national  government,  our  state  governments,  our  city  officials,  and 
private  associations  like  the  United  States  Chamber  of  Commerce,  the  Ameri- 
can Railway  Association,  and  the  National  Association  of  the  Manufactur- 
ers, held  meetings  during  the  months  of  the  strike  to  decide  what  should  be 
-done.  The  State  of  New  York  appointed  a  Fuel  Administrator.  His  first 
act  was  to  order  coal  dealers  "to  deliver  to  no  customer  more  than  a  two 
weeks'  supply  of  the  domestic  size  of  anthracite."  Why  did  he  issue  such 
an  order  as  this? 


COAL  :  ANOTHER  KEY  INDUSTRY 


63 


Where  iron  and  steel  manufacturing  is  done  in  America. 


Fig.  38 

Where  Are  Our  Coal  Fields? 

HOW  DOES  their  LOCATION  AFFECT  WHERE  PEOPLE  LIVE? 

Be  ready  to  point  out  on  the  wall  map  the  region  in  America  where  people 
live  most  closely  together.  Turn  back  to  Figs.  5  and  6  if  you  cannot  remem- 
ber. Fig.  20  will  give  you  a  still  better  idea.  Remember  that  the  zone 
marked  out  on  Fig.  20  is  called  the  Industrial  Zone  as  well  as  the  Immigra- 
tion Zone.    Here  32  of  the  50  largest  cities  in  the  United  States  are  found. 


Courtesy  of  Industrial  Digest, 
August  5,  1922 

Where  the  coal  of  America  is  deposited  in  the  earth 

Fig.  39 


64 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Now  one  of  the  industries  most  closely  connected  to  the  coal  industry  is 
that  of  iron  and  steel  manufacturing.  The  iron  ore  as  it  is  taken  out  of  the 
earth  has  to  be  "smelted" — that  is,  heated  to  a  very  great  heat — so  as  to  re- 
move the  impurities  from  the  iron.  Soft  coal  and  coke  (made  from  coal) 
are  of  course  the  fuels  commonly  used  in  this  work  of  smelting  the  iron  ore. 
They  are  used  in  such  huge  quantities  that  people  have  learned  it  is  econ- 
omical to  build  their  steel  mills  near  the  coal  deposits.  That  is  true  not  only 
in  America  but  in  Europe,  too.  You  will  find,  when  you  study  in  Part  II 
about  the  great  steel  industries  of  France  and  Germany  that  although  France 
has  the  greater  iron  deposits  much  of  the  smelting  is  done  in  Germany  be- 
cause of  her  greater  coal  deposits.  So  France  ships  much  of  her  iron  to 
Germany  to  be  smelted. 

Having  Fig.  38  in  mind  then,  where  w^ould  you  expect  to  find  the  great 
soft  coaP  deposits  of  our  country?  In  Florida?  In  California?  Texas? 
Nebraska  ?   New  York  ?   the  New  England  States  ? 

How^  does  Fig.  39  help  you  to  answer  this  question  ?  Where  are  the  chief 
soft  coal  beds?  Where  are  hard  coal  (anthracite)  beds?  Point  them  out 
on  the  wall  map.  Do  you  see  a  very  good  reason  w^hy  the  iron  and  steel  in- 
dustries are  centered  in  the  northeastern  region  ?  Why  great  steel  plants  are 
concentrated  about  Pittsburgh,  and  scattered  through  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
Northern  Indiana,  and  Illinois? 


MAP  EXERCISE 

1.  On  a  blank  map  of  the  United  States  shade  in  the  coal  deposit  regions 
of  the  country. 

2.  Exchange  papers  with  your  neighbor.  Correct  his  map  by  compar- 
ing it  with  Fig.  39.  Draw  a  line  from  each  misplaced  region  out  to  the 
margin  placing  a  cross  at  the  end  of  it.  Then  return  his  paper  and  receive 
your  own. 

3.  Study  Fig.  39  very  carefully  and  learn  the  locations  of  the  regions 
which  you  may  have  missed. 


Where  do  you  think  the  great  steel  mills  about  Chicago  draw  their  coal 
from?    Where  do  those  about  Pittsburgh  draw  from? 

The  bar  graphs  Fig.  40  will  give  you  further  facts  about  where  our  soft 
coal  comes  from.  Which  state  produced  the  most  in  1920?  What  other 
states  produced  large  quantities? 

Do  the  states  which  produce  most  coal  nowadays  have  the  largest  amount 
left  in  the  ground?  The  circle  graphs  of  Fig.  40  will  give  you  the  facts  for 
answering  this  question.  Are  you  surprised  to  find  such  large  soft  coal  de- 
posits in  Colorado?    in  the  Dakota  region? 

>  Soft  coal  is  called  "bituminous."    See  page  72  for  discussion  of  this. 


COAL  :  ANOTHER  KEY  INDUSTRY 


65 


When  you  were  studying  why  particular  cities  grew,  did  you  take  Denver 
as  an  example?  Do  you  see  now  one  reason  for  an  inland  city  growing  up 
where  Denver  did,  even  though  there  are  no  important  waterways?  What 
chance  do  you  think  Denver  has  of  growing  rapidly  in  the  future? 


IITUMINOUS  COIL 


•4  )44re4oog 


PRODUCTION     BITUMIHOttS     COAL  1920 
c*(.c*o*ii  rc*« 

0  so  100  ISO  200  MILLIOU 

M  ■^■■HHHBHBHIHi  idoooooo 

JOOSOOOO 

trjooooo 


Courtesy  of  Industrial  Digest,  1922 
Fig.  40 


WHO  PRODUCES  AND  USES  THE  WORLD^S  COAL? 

The  figures  and  maps  showing  our  coal  production  give  one  the  feeling 
that  the  United  States  must  produce  enough  to  supply  a  large  part  of  the 
world.  If  you  will  turn  forward  to  page  33  of  Part  II,  you  can  find  out 
how  much  of  the  world's  supply  the  United  States  does  produce.  What  three 
countries,  according  to  Fig.  16,  produce  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  world's 
coal  supply?   Where  does  the  United  States  stand  in  the  list? 

Are  the  countries  which  produce  the  coal  also  the  ones  who  use  that 
coal  ? 

Which  countries  do  you  think  must  export  coal  ?   Why  do  you  think  that  ? 

From  what  you  know  about  the  countries  of  the  world,  would  it  be 
true  to  say  that  the  leading  countries  are  the  greatest  coal  producers?  Are 
there  any  exceptions  to  this  ?  • 


66 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


EXERCISE 

See  if  you  can  fill  in  the  blanks  correctly : 
A  nation  needs  coal  What  does  she  need  coal  for  ? 

1.  When  she  gains  colo-   

nies. 


2.  When  she  exports  large 
quantities  of  products. 


3.  When  she  imports  large 
quantities  of  products. 


4.  If  she  is  chiefly  a  farm-   

ing  country. 

5.  If  she  is  chiefly  a  manu-  

facturing  country. 

5.  If  she  depends  upon  effi-   

cient  transportation. 

"  7.  When  her  people  live  

chiefly  in  cities. 

Do  you  see  how  important  coal  is  to  a  nation,  and  how  every  nation  must 
have  a  large  supply  of  it  ? 

HOW  LONG  HAVE  MEN  BEEN  ABLE  TO  USE  COAL? 

Is  it  your  thought  that  people  have  always  burned  coal  to  heat  their 
homes?  to  run  trains  and  mills?  to  make  power  by  which  streets  could  be 
lighted  ?  No,  though  the  world  may  be  millions  of  years  old,  man  has  learned 
how  to  burn  coal  and  to  run  machines  by  steam  power  only  within  the  past 
150  years. 

Have  you  any  idea  how  old  the  earth  is  ?  We  really  do  not  know.  For 
a  long  time  scientists  have  been  trying  to  find  out  and  to  discover  when  life 
began  upon  the  earth.  Some  people  have  thought  that  perhaps  the  earth  is 
as  old  as  1  billion,  600  million  years;  others — Lord  Kelvin,  the  English 
scientist,  for  example — have  thought  that  it  might  be  as  young  as  25  million 
years.  Think  of  the  difference  in  their  estimates,  1,600  million  and  25 
million.  Yet  think  what  a  long  time  even  the  smallest  estimate  is  —  25 
million  years!  Tlie  great  English  scientist  Huxley  estimated  that  the  earth 
was  about  400  million  years  old. 


COAL :  ANOTHER  KEY  INDUSTRY 


67 


Of  course  we  cannot  be  at  all  sure  about  the  length  of  time  the  earth  as 
we  know  it  now,  has  been  in  forming,  but  we  do  know  that  it  has  taken  a 
very  great  number  of  years— surely  scores  of  millions,  perhaps  hundreds  of 
millions  of  years. 

We  want  you  to  get  a  feeling  for  this  great  stretch  of  time  from  Fig.  41. 

This  Time  Line  compares  the  very  great  age  of  the  earth  (estimated  by 
scientists)  with  the  great  stretch  which  it  took  for  coal  to  form.  On  it  is 
shown  the  very  short  time  that  people  have  used  coal. 

Today 


.]^P  .,^,9  60  40  20  I      Coal  has  been  wide- 

Tiillion       million       million       million       million  ly  used  only  in  the 

^'A^/.L        ^^^""^  ^^^^^  y^^^'s  years  last  100  years,  and 

CoalwaVpVobablyfo^mTngan  through  ihisp^H^d.       .  1' J?.n!HW 

It  has  been  millions  of  years  in  the  making.  ung  rapiaiy. 

Fig.  41 

How  long  will  our  coal  supply  last,  and  what  will  we  do  when  it  is  used 
up?    (See  page  68  and  pages  73  and  74.) 

We  will  not  take  time  here  to  discuss  how  the  earth  came  to  be  formed. 
What  we  are  interested  in  here  is  to  see  what  a  very  small  fraction  of  all 
these  millions  of  years  men  have  been  known  to  be  living  on  the  earth ;  and 
then  we  want  to  see  how  very  very  short  in  comparison  has  been  the  time  that 
coal  has  been  used  to  produce  steam  power.  It  is  difficult  to  realize  that  only 
50  years  ago  people  depended  altogether  upon  wood  for  their  heat ;  that  they 
had  little  or  no  iron ;  that  even  in  the  few  cities  we  had  along  the  Atlantic 
Coast  m  1755  to  1800  factories  were  almost  unknown  and  manufacturing 
was  done  almost  entirely  by  hand. 

What  brought  about  the  change?  More  than  anything  else,  man's  dis- 
covery that  coal  could  be  burned  in  boilers,  that  steam  could  be  made  from 
hot  water,  and  that  the  pressure  of  steam  could  be  used  to  move  things.  In 
other  words,  it  was  the  steam  engine  that  brought  about  the  change,  and 
that  happened  before  1700.  Turn  back  to  the  Time  Line  of  the  Industrial 
Revolution,  Fig.  10,  and  study  carefully  the  way  in  which  steam  engines 
developed. 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  machines  and  industrial  processes  listed  on  this  Time 
Line  that  demanded  the  use  of  coal.  Where  was  iron  first  smelted  with 
coal?  How  surprising  it  is  that  the  first  crude  engine  was  made  as  recently 
as  1695  when  the  earth  was  millions  of  years  old  and  men  had  been  living 
on  it  at  least  many  thousands  of  years!  In  1695  Newcomer,  an  English 
mechanic,  perfected  a  pump  to  raise  water  out  of  the  coal  mines.  Of  course, 
there  were  few  mines  at  that  time,  although  coal  had  been  known  for  several 
hundred  years,  and  Englishmen  had  learned  that  underneath  their  soil  was  a 
good  deal  of  this  rock  substance  that  would  burn  and  make  great  heat.  But, 
as  the  mines  they  had  were  deepened,  water  accumulated  in  them  and  pre- 
vented the  miners  from  going  down  and  taking  out  the  coal.    So  Newcom- 


68 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


er's  pump  was  an  answer  to  a  great  need  for  some  way  of  taking  the  water 
out  of  the  mines.  It  could  raise  water  through  a  distance  of  many  feet  and 
was  reasonably  successful  in  helping  to  carry  on  the  work  of  the  English 
mines.   This  pump  was  really  the  first  steam  engine. 

Time  went  on,  however,  throughout  the  1700's  and  it  was  more  than 
half  a  century  before  Englishmen  learned  that  the  same  ideas  which  New- 
comer had  used  to  make  his  pump  could  be  employed  in  making  an  engine 
which  would  move  things.  Of  course,  during  the  years  from  1695  to  the 
middle  of  the  1700's,  a  great  many  men  were  experimenting,  to  invent  an 
engine  that  would  make  things  go.  Finally  in  1765,  James  Watt  succeeded 
in  perfecting  one  which  would  run  by  the  pressure  of  steam.  And  then  men 
were  quick  to  see  that  what  they  needed  next  was  fuel  to  heat  the  water  in 
the  boilers  to  run  the  engines.  A  great  quantity  of  coal  was  just  below  their 
feet  waiting  to  serve  their  purposes. 

Then  what  an  astonishing  thing  happened !  Almost  at  the  same  time 
that  Watt  and  Stephenson  and  the  other  English  engineers  were  busy  im- 
proving the  steam  engine  and  learning  how  to  make  it  draw  loads  over  tracks, 
other  Englishmen  were  inventing  machines  which  would  do  the  work  that 
men  had  been  doing  with  their  hands. 

Turn  back  to  the  Time  Line  again,  Fig.  10.  What  were  the  first  inven- 
tions to  follow  those  of  Watt  and  Stephenson  ?  Do  you  notice  the  series  of 
inventions  in  the  textile  industry,  in  the  steel  and  iron  industry,  and  in 
transportation  ?  How  would  these  inventions  help  to  explain  the  increasing 
use  of  coal  as  shown  in  Table  V  ? 

Table  V. 

THE  AMOUNT  OF  COAL  USED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1850-1919  ^ 

TONS 


1850    7,000,000 

1860    14,000,000 

1870    33,000,000 

1880    91,000,000 

1890   1   157,000,000 

1900    269,000,000 

1910    404,000,000 

1919   (last  figures  available)   605,000,000 


From  this  table,  make  a  graph  in  your  notebook  showing  how  the  use  of  • 
coal  in  our  country  increased  from  1850  to  1919. 

The  rapid  rate  of  increase  in  our  use  of  coal  is  causing  many  people  to 
fear  that  our  supply  will  soon  be  used  up.  Experts  say  that  it  will  not  last 
more  than  about  150  years  more.  Do  you  think  we  waste  coal?  See  if  you 
can  find  out  and  report  to  the  class  the  ways  that  we  waste  it  if  we  do. 

1  The  figures  for  1850-1900  are  based  upon  a  chart  in  "The  Conservation  of 
Natural  Resources,"  bv  Van  Hise,  C.  R.,  page  24.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New 
York,  1921.  The  figures  for  1910  and  1919  are  taken  from  The  Statistical  Abstract 
of  the  United  States  for  1919,  page  54  9.  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington, 
O.  C,  1920. 


COAL :  ANOTHER  KEY  INDUSTRY 


69 


Jo  the  Teacher:  We  suggest  that  you  assign  the  task  of 
hndmg  out  about  our  wastage  of  coal  to  a  few  pupils  for 
class  reports.  Books  on  the  Conservation  of  Natural  Re- 
sources contain  many  illustrations  of  waste.  See  biblio- 
graphy at  the  end  of  this  unit. 

One  invention  led  to  another,  and  as  engines  were  perfeected  manufac- 
turing processes  were  improved.  The  whole  Industrial  Revolution  really 
hinged  upon  the  discovery  of  the  way  to  make  things  go  by  steam  power. 
The  steam  power  that  could  make  machines  go  was  more  and  more  taking 
the  place  of  human  energy,  and  industrial  efficiency  increased  with  the  in- 
crease in  the  use  of  machines. 

But  the  thing  that  made  steam  power  possible  was  coal.  Fortunate 
were  the  nations  who  had  large  supplies  of  coal.  Turn  to  page  33  of  Part 
II  and  see  if  you  can  tell  from  Fig.  16  whether  there  is  any  correspondence 
between  the  nations  that  lead  industrially  and  those  that  have  the  greatest 
coal  resources.   What  is  your  conclusion  ?   Write  it  in  your  notebook. 

With  the  use  of  coal  naturally  came  the  great  use  of  iron  and  steel. 
Cities  grew  up  in  great  numbers,  and  with  their  growth  came  the  building 
of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  miles  of  railroads,  the  tying  together  of  man- 
ufacturing communities,  the  construction  of  steel  ocean-going  ships,  the 
-  lacing  together  of  all  parts  of  the  world  with  cables  and  telephones  and' tele- 
graph wires  and  wireless  communication.    For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
the  world  there  came  an  opportunity  for  people  to  replace  hours  and  hours 
of  hand-labor  by  the  use  of  machines.    For  the  first  time  in  all  the  thou- 
sands of  years  through  which  man  lived  upon  the  earth,  people  had  found 
a  way  to  get  their  work  done  in  short  spaces  of  time.    At  last  there  could 
be  leisure  hours  to  enjoy  life,  to  improve  home  conditions,  and  to  discover 
the  better  and  richer  things  that  life  held  out  to  them.    What  actually  hap- 
pened as  a  result  of  these  discoveries?    Was  life  improved  and  enriched  for 
the  ''slaves"  of  toil?    How  do  people  that  work  with  machines  spend 
their  days?    Amid  happy,  healthy  surroundings?    And  do  they  have  long 
restful  evenings  to  enjoy  good  books,  hear  good  music,  and  go  to  good 
plays?    Have  you  ever  visited  a  machine  shop  and  seen  men  at  their  work> 
If  not,  can't  you  arrange  to  do  so?    If  you  do  not  think  all  people  profited 
by  the  mtroduction  of  machinery,  do  you  think  some  did  ? 

Write  down  in  summary  form  the  ideas  that  you  got  from  reading  the 
last  three  paragraphs. 

As  you  study  on  through  this  pamphlet,  watch  for  examples  of  the  way 
in  which  living  upon  the  earth  has  improved  as  the  coal,  iron,  and  steel  era 
has  developed. 


70 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


HOW  COAL  WAS  MADE. 

You  have  the  good  fortune — if  it  is  good  fortune — to  live  in  a  country 
which  has  under  its  surface  the  finest  and  largest  supply  of  coal  that  is 
known  to  exist  any  place  on  the  earth.  How  did  this  coal  happen  to  be 
where  it  is?  Why  should  we,  rather  than  the  Arabs  of  the  desert,  or  the 
natives  of  Java  and  Tahiti, — why  should  we  have  inherited  this  great 
natural  resource  ? 

How  was  coal  made  ?  How  long  will  it  last  ?  Will  there  be  something 
to  take  its  place?  How  long  will  that  last? — These  are  questions  which 
Americans  and  Englishmen  and  Germans  and  Frenchmen  and  people  of 
every  modern  nation  are  beginning  to  ask  themselves  very  seriously. 

First,  how  was  coal  made?  Well,  the  story  is  shrouded  in  a  great  deal 
of  mystery  and  uncertainty,  but  gradually  as  scientific  knowledge  has  de- 
veloped during  the  past  century  or  two,  students  of  the  matter  have  been 
able  to  piece  together  a  story  which  seems  quite  believable.  Oi  course  it 
may  be  that,  like  so  many  of  the  beliefs  of  men  in  earlier  times,  some  as- 
pects of  the  present  theories  about  the  formation  of  coal  will  have  to  be 
changed,  but  the  account  we  will  sketch  is  what  scientists  of  today  think 
probably  happened. 

Turn  back  to  the  relief  map  of  Fig.  21.  Notice  how  the  Appalachian 
Mountain  system  runs  along  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  Notice 
the  stretches  of  mountain  land  through  New  England — the  G^een  Moun- 
tains, the  White  Mountains,  the  Berkshires,  and  then  look  across  to  the 
tremendous  ranges  of  the  Rockies  and  the  Sierra  Nevadas  all  through  the 
western  part  of  the  country.  Between  the  eastern  and  western  highlands 
lie  the  broad  central  plains  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Valleys. 

Find  in  your  geography  a  physical  map  which  shows  the  *'lay  of  the  land" 
on  the  other  continents.  Notice  the  Pyrenees  of  Spain,  the  Alps  across 
northern  Italy  and  southern  Austria,  the  highlands  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
and  the  Caucasus.    Do  you  know  how  these  mountain  ranges  w^ere  formed  ? 

It  is  believed  that  during  the  millions  of  years  while  the  world's  conti- 
nents were  gradually  forming,  the  mountain  systems  came  about  through  a 
shrinking  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.  While  this  process  was  going  on,  there 
were  no  animals  in  the  sea  or  plants  on  the  land,  no  life  of  any  kind  even 
a  million  or  two  years  ago.  Meanwhile  an  intense  heat  was  being  stored  up 
in  the  earth,  and  as  the  crust  cooled  off  the  heat  burst  through  at  certain 
places,  causing  great  upheavals  on  the  earth's  surface.  When  this  matter 
cooled  again,  there  were  long  ridges  and  deep  depressions,  and  where  such 
explosions  were  very  violent,  the  heated  gases  and  molten  materials  were 
thrust  so  high  that  great  peaks  were  left  on  the  earth's  surface.  There  are 
still  a  number  of  these  active  volcanoes,  as  they  are  called,  in  diflFcrent  parts 
of  the  earth.    One  of  the  best  known,  of  course,  is  that  of  Mt.  Vesuvius  in 


coal:  another  key  industry  71 


Italy.  Look  it  up  on  your  map.  Can  you  find  others  in  your  geography? 
So  this  is  the  way  we  came  to  have  highlands  and  lowlands  on  the  various 
continents  of  the  earth's  surface. 

Scientists  believe  that  millions  of  years  ago  there  was  very  heavy  vegeta- 
tion in  the  regions  where  our  coal  fields  are  now.  They  have  found  evidence 
for  the  fact  that  there  were  great  swampy  forests  and  that  every  now  and 
then  large  amounts  of  earthy  materials  were  washed  down  on  them  and 
adjacent  lands.  The  forests  were  submerged  under  rock  upheavals  or  killed  by 
the  rushing  in  of  great  quantities  of  water  from  the  oceans  or  buried  under 
heavy  layers  of  soil.  Then  tree  trunks,  leaves,  branches,  massed  together 
making  a  hard  layer  of  vegetation.  But  each  time  the  forests  were  killed, 
others  grew  up  after  a  period  of  time,  and  it  is  believed  that  this  cycle  of  pro- 
cesses was  repeated  at  least  several  times.  It  is  in  these  regions  where  layers 
of  vegetation  formed  one  on  another  that  our  coal  is  found. 

It  may  have  been  70  million  years  ago,  scientists  think,  that  a  rapid 
change  started  in  the  rocks  on  the  earth's  surface.  It  is  believed  that  the 
surface  gave  way  under  the  ever-increasing  load  that  was  put  upon  it,  and 
that  a  great  gouge  was  made  running  upward  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  what 
is  now  northeastern  America. 

The  edges  of  the  upland  pressed  in  against  each  other  with  the  force  of 
great  heat  pressure  and  crushed  the  depressions  together  until  the  result  was 
all  sorts  of  irregular  peaks  and  ridges.  When  the  mass  was  finally  shaken 
down  mto  form,  it  separated  into  two  big  highland  ranges  with  an  immense 
valley  between.  This  we  call  the  Great  Valley  today.  Find  the  Great  Valley 
on  your  map.  So  the  coal  that  formed  in  these  regions  is  accounted  for  by 
the  decay  of  layer  upon  layer  of  matted  vegetation  which  was  heated  very 
hot  and  thrown  up  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  again. 

About  50  million  years  later  than  this— that  is,  20  million,  years  ago— 
another  great  convulsion  raised  up  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  North  America 
and  the  Andes  of  South  America  and  the  Alps  and  other  European  moun- 
tams.  These  mountains  that  were  made  so  much  more  recently  than  the  Old 
Appalachians,  for  instance,  are  spoken  of  as  young  mountains. 

In  your  geography  book  compare  the  pictures  of  scenes  in  the  Appal- 
achians with  scenes  in  the  Rockies.  Do  you  see  how  rounded  and  smooth  the 
Appalachians  are  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  rugged  rocky  peaks  of  the  western 
mountains?  The  Appalachian  slopes  are  more  gradual  because  during  their 
longer  life  they  have  been  slowly  worn  away  by  the  weather.  Rainfall  drop- 
ping upon  them  century  after  century  throughout  the  millions  of  years  has 
slowly  ground  of¥  the  rugged  peaks  and  sharp  ridges.  Do  you  notice,  too, 
that  the  Appalachians  have  more  forests  ? 

So  you  see  how  long  it  has  taken  to  make  coal,  the  fuel  our  very  lives  de- 
pend upon.  Let  us  not  forget  that  it  has  been  a  process  of  millions  of  years— 
probably  between  20  and  70  million.    The  layers  that  were  transformed  into 


72 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


coal  vary  in  thickness  all  the  way  from  a  few  inches  in  some  seams  to  sixty 
feet  in  others.  In  some  places  the  coal  was  even  thrown  out  to  the  very  sur- 
face of  the  earth.  As  men  have  prospected  about  for  it,  they  have  found 
places  where  it  could  be  scooped  right  oif  the  side  of  the  mountain.  In  other 
places  it  is  lodged  1000  feet  below  the  surface.  It  has  been  so  much  needed 
in  this  industrial  age  of  ours  that  people  have  dug  great  coal  shafts  way  down 
into  the  earth,  and  then  out  from  the  openings  they  have  dug  channels  to  fol- 
low the  coal  seams  wherever  they  ran. 

Kinds  of  Coal 

SOFT  OR  BITUMINOUS  HARD  OR  ANTHRACITE 

The  coal  maps  you  have  looked  at  refer  to  two  kinds  of  coal— soft  or 
bituminous  and  hard  or  anthracite.  Do  you  know  what  kind  is  burned  in 
the  furnace  that  heats  your  house,  or  in  the  one  that  heats  your  school  build- 
ing? If  you  live  near  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  you  probably 
burn  anthracite  or  hard  coal.  The  map  of  Fig.  39  shows  where  th^  different 
kinds  of  coal  are  located  in  the  United  States.  Notice  that  the  anthracite  is 
pretty  largely  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  especially  in  Pennsylvania. 
The  surface  of  eastern  Pennsylvania  around  Scranton  and  Wilkes-Barre  is 
almost  honeycombed  with  anthracite  coal  mines ;  in  fact,  the  city  of  Wilkes- 
Barre  has  been  almost  completely  undermined.  Hundreds  of  miners  work 
below  the  principal  streets  of  that  thriving  city  every  day.  The  bituminous 
coal  of  the  United  States  is  found  chiefly  in  the  Appalachian  highlands  and  in 
Illinois  and  Indiana.  If  you  live  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  you  are  probably 
using  some  kind  of  bituminous  coal. 

How  do  you  think  it  came  about  that  these  coals  are  so  different?  The 
bituminous  is  soft  and  very  dirty,  makes  a  great  smoke,  while  the  anthracite 
is  slow  to  burn,  lasts  longer,  and  gives  out  great  heat.  The  scientists  tell 
us  that  the  difference  is  due  to  the  amount  of  heat  and  pressure  to  which 
the  layers  of  vegetation  were  subjected  in  the  "geographical  revolutions" 
that  convulsed  our  earth  millions  of  years  ago.  The  bituminous  coal  has  a 
great  deal  of  material  in  it  which  burns  easily,  such  as  oil,  gas,  tar.  In  the  up- 
heavals of  the  earth  millions  of  years  ago  it  was  subjected  to  relatively  little 
heat;  the  layers  of  rocks  above  it  were  practically  the  only  pressure.  The 
anthracite  coal,  on  the  other  hand,  is  almost  pure  carbon.  If  you  try  to  start 
a  fire  with  the  two  kinds  of  coal  in  different  ovens,  you  will  notice  how  much 
more  difficult  it  is  to  get  the  anthracite  to  burn,  but  you  will  also  notice  that 
once  it  catches  fire  it  burns  steadily  and  gives  out  much  more  heat  than  the 
bituminous  does.  Scientists  say  the  anthracite  was  crushed  down  under  the 
load  of  great  mountains  and  at  the  same  time  was  heated  to  white  heat  and 
literally  roasted  by  the  flames  of  terrific  volcanoes. 

An  anthracite  coal  fire  can  be  kept  going  in  a  heater  all  day  with  just  one 
or  two  pokings,  whereas  a  soft  coal  fire  needs  constant  attention. 


coal:  another  key  industry 


73 


It  is  interesting  to  note  that  there  is  another  kind  of  vegetable  material 
which  has  been  hardened  and  roasted  throughout  the  ages.  We  use  it  com- 
mercially today,  but  it  cannot  be  burned  at  all.  Did  you  ever  use  graphite 
on  your  bicycles?  Graphite  came  from  the  layers  of  material  that  were  sub- 
jected to  heat  and  pressure  incalculably  greater  than  that  to  which  anthra- 
cite was  subjected.  The  heat  and  pressure  were  so  great,  in  fact,  that  the 
carbon— the  material  which  would  burn— was  all  burned  away. 

This,  then,  in  brief  is  the  story  of  coal.  What  was  the  most  interesting 
thmg  to  you  in  the  story  ?    What  surprised  you  most  ? 

How  Long  Will  Our  Coal  Reserves  Last? 

CAN  WE  REPLACE  THEM  ? 

Didn't  it  take  an  amazingly  long  time  for  the  coal  to  be  formed?  Will 
your  mind  "take  in"  20  millions  of  years?  Think  how  long  a  time  the  life 
of  a  person  is— 60  to  70  years,  let  us  say.  Then  think  back,  say  one  hundred 
times  as  long  as  that.  If  you  can  imagine  such  a  stretch  of  time.  That  stretch 
is  just  the  short  space  for  which  we  know  what  man  was  doing  on  the  earth. 
And  that  is  so  short,  7000  years,  as  compared  with  the  length  of  time  it  took 
to  make  coal  that  we  were  not  able  even  to  represent  it  on  our  time  line.  (See 
Fig.  41.) 

Now  one  of  the  most  important  questions  that  people  face  today  is.  How 
long  will  the  present  store  of  coal  in  the  growid  last  at  the  rate  we  are  using 
it?  Many  engineers  have  studied  the  matter.  The  reports  they  give  us  are 
very  disquieting.  They  say  that  our  coal  supply  cannot  last  more  than  a 
hundred  years.  Millions  of  years  were  required  to  make  coal,  but  we  have 
used  it  so  rapidly  that  at  the  end  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  we  are  forced 
to  face  the  fact  that  probably  only  another  century's  supply  is  left ! 

.  .  .  "Twenty  m.illion  years  ago  all  the  coal  we  have  or  shall  have  was 
packed  away  in  the  ribs  of  the  earth  in  seams  varying  from  sixty  feet  to  the 
thickness  of  a  blade  of  grass.  It  is  estimated  that  we  still  have  in  the  world 
more  than  seven  thousand  billion  tons  distributed  as  follows : 

North  America   5,073,431,000,000 

Asia   1,279,586,000,000 

Europe    784,190,000,000 

Australasia    170,410,000,000 

c     u    57,839,000,000 

South  America   32,097,000,000 

Total  7,397,553,000,000."! 
Does  this  seem  like  a  huge  amount  of  coal?    7000  billions?    To  write  it 
infigures  requires  13  decimal  places.    We  are  not  accustomed  to  using  more 

1922'  '"^^^  Coming  of  Coal."     Association  Press,  New  York. 


1 


74  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

than  millions  or  billions,  even  in  these  modern  days  of  gigantic  things.  But 
we  are  using  such  an  enormous  number  of  tonh  of  coal  for  our  thousands  of 
locomotives  and  factories,  for  houses  and  public  buildings,  and  to  do  the 
countless  other  things  of  everyday  tw^entieth-century  life  that  our  huge  coal 
pile  is  dwindling  very  fast. 

"Mr.  D.  B.  Rushmore,  chief  engineer  in  the  power  and  mining  depart- 
ment of  the  General  Electric  Company,  calculates  that  if  our  coal  consump- 
tion were  to  continue  to  increase  at  the  apparently  normal  rate  of  seven  per 
cent  each  year,  the  life  of  our  known  reserves  would  be  as  follows : 

Eastern  District,  which  includes  the  most 

accessible  and  best  quality  of  our  fuel  59  years 

Eastern,  Central,  and  Southern  Districts  65  years 

Entire  U.  S.  and  Alaska,  two-thirds  of  this 

being  low-grade  coals  and  lignites  84  years 

"These  figures  are  based  upon  the  appraisals  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey. They  include  coal  in  veins  as  shallow  as  fourteen  inches,  all  coal  whose 
ash  content  does  not  exceed  thirty  per  cent,  and  all  known  deposits  within 
six  thousand  feet  of  the  surface.  They  are  based  on  the  optimistic  assump- 
tion that  two-thirds  of  the  coal  in  the  mines  will  be  brought  to  the  surface,  a 
considerably  higher  recovery  than  has  hitherto  been  achieved.  Mr.  Rush- 
more  concludes  that  the  evidence  points  unmistabably  to  an  approaching 
scarcity  of  high-grade  coal  and  increasingly  higher  prices."  ^ 

Does  it  look  as  though  our  great  grandchildren  would  have  coal  with 
which  to  heat  their  houses?  Will  they  ride  in  trains  driven  by  coal-burning 
locomotives?  Will  their  factories  be  run  by  the  steam  from  thousands  of 
coal-burning  boilers? 

If  we  are  using  up  our  coal  at  such  a  terrific  rate,  can  we  replace  it?  Have 
men  learned  how  to  make  coal?  No,  not  as  yet.  Wonderful  things  are  be- 
ing done  in  our  day,  but  so  far  no  one  has  discovered  how  to  duplicate  na- 
ture's work  of  millions  of  years  and  make  coal.  Since  it  has  taken  such  an 
enormous  length  of  time  to  produce,  we  are  faced  with  the  fact  that  once  we 
use  our  present  supply  coal  is  gone  from  man  forever. 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  COAL 

Are  there  substitutes  for  coal?  How  do  the  people  who  do  not  use  coal 
heat  their  houses  today  ?  By  burning  oil  ?  Yes,  some  people  do.  By  burning 
wood?  A  few  who  five  under  rural  conditions  do.  By  electricity?  Very 
few.  Electricity  is  very  expensive  and  so  not  available  to  many.  Then,  of 
course,  even  electricity  has  to  be  generated  from  something  that  makes  heat, 
and  coal  is  still  the  best  fuel  for  that. 


^Bruere,  Robert  W.:  Op.  cit.,  pages  79-80. 


coal:  another  key  industry 


75 


What  about  natural  gas?  Yes,  but  the  supply  of  that  is  fast  giving  out, 
and  has  already  given  out  completely  in  many  places.  So  it  cannot  be  counted 
on  long. 

These  fuels— oil,  natural  gas,  and  w^ood— together  with  another  source 
of  power,  water  power,  are  the  only  possible  substitutes  for  the  rapidly  de- 
creasing supply  of  coal.  In  another  pamphlet  we  will  learn  about  their  use, 
but  at  this  time  we  can  be  sure  of  this :  the  supplies  of  oil,  gas,  and  wood  are 
also  being  very  rapidly  exhausted.  The  engineers  tell  us  definitely  that 
these  fuels  cannot  last  even  as  long  as  coal,  and  many  tell  us  that  petroleum 
will  not  last  even  thirty  years ! 


Courtesy  of  Scientific  American,  October,  1922 
How  a  coal  mine  is  operated 


Fig.  42 
EXERCISE 

Look  up  in  the  encyclopedia  or  some  other  book  in  your  library,  the 
answers  to  these  questions: 

1.    What  are  the  present  reserve  supplies  of  petroleum,  natural  gas, 
r  timber. 


76 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


2.  How  rapidly  are  we  using  up  these  supplies? 

3.  How  long  will  our  supply  of  each  probably  last? 

4.  How  much  water  power  can  be  developed  in  the  United  States?  How 
much  is  developed  now?  Do  engineers  think  enough  can  be  generated  to 
take  the  place  of  coal  ? 

5.  Find  accounts  of  the  attempts  to  make  motors  that  can  be  run  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun's  rays — sun-motors.  (See  such  magazines  as  The  Scientific 
A?nerica7i,  or  Popular  Science  Monthly.)  Have  such  attempts  been  suc- 
cessful ? 

6.  See  if  you  can  find  accounts  of  attempts  to  use  the  waves  of  the  ocean 
to  run  motors.    Have  these  been  successful  ? 

SUMMARY 

You  have  studied  about  the  importance  of  transportation  in  the  life  of  the 
American  city.  How  much  do  the  lives  of  city  people  depend  on  transporta- 
tion?   Be  ready  to  give  examples  of  this. 

You  have  also  studied  about  the  importance  of  coal  in  the  lives  of  the 

people.  '  To  what  extent  do  the  lives  of  city  people  depend  upon  a  continuous 

and  adequate  supply  of  coal  ?    Give  examples  of  this. 

To  the  Teacher:  We  suggest  as  a  class  activity  that  the 
pupils  be  assigned  special  reports  on  the  coal-mining  in- 
dustry, using  such  topics  as  these:  (1)  A  day's  work  in  a 
coal  mine;  (2)  How  coal  is  mined;  (3)  Dangers  and 
safeguards  in  coal-mining;  (4)  Waste  in  coal-mining.^  In 
the  following  list  of  books  there  are  excellent  descriptions 
and  pictures  of  the  coal  industry.  Those  marked  with  an 
asterisk  are  suitable  for  the  pupils'  use. 

*Allen,  Nellie  B.:  United  States.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston, 
1910.    Pages  138-165. 

Bruere,  Robert  W. :  The  Coming  of  Coal.  Associ- 
ation Press,  New  York,  1922. 

*  Carpenter,  Frank  G. :  North  America.  American  Book 
Company,  New  York,  1898.    Pages  211-218. 

*Chase,  A.  and  Clow,  E.:  Stories  of  Industry.  Educa- 
tional Publishing  Company,  New  York,  1915.    Pages  1-22. 

*Fisher,  Elizabeth  F. :  Resources  and  Industries  of  the 
United  States.    Ginn  &  Co.,  1919.    Pages  142-154. 

*McMurry,  Charles  A.:  Type  Studies  From  the  Geo- 
graphy of  the  United  States.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
New  York,  1917.    Pages  63-80. 

Martin,  Edward  A.:  The  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal.  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1908.    Pages  84-101. 

*Rocheleau,  W.  F. :  Great  American  Industries.  First 
Book.  Minerals.  A.  Flanagan  Co.,  Chicago,  1902.  Pages 
7-44. 

Smith,  J.  Russell :  Commerce  and  Industry.  Henrv  Holt 
&  Co.,  New  York,  1916.    Pages  153-167. 

*'l'appan,  Eva  M. :  Diggers  in  the  Earth.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1916."   Pages  1-10. 

Van  Hise,  Charles  R. :  The  Conser-vation  of  Natural 
Resources.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1921. 
Pages  17-35. 

Any  school  geography  also  contains  pictures,  maps,  and 
descriptions  of  coal  mining. 


VI.    IRON  IN  INDUSTRIAL  LIFE 


IRON 

Iron  vessels  cross  the  ocean, 
Iron  engines  give  them  motion ; 
Iron  needles  northward  veering, 
Iron  tillers  vessels  steering; 
Iron  pipe  our  gas  delivers, 
Iron  bridges  span  our  rivers; 
Iron  pens  are  used  for  writing, 
Iron  ink  our  thoughts  inditing ; 
Iron  stoves  for  cooking  victuals, 
Iron  ovens,  pots,  and  kettles; 
Iron  horses  draw  our  loads, 
Iron  rails  compose  our  roads; 
Iron  anchors  hold  in  sands. 
Iron  bolts,  and  rods,  and  bands; 
Iron  houses,  iron  walls. 
Iron  cannon,  iron  balls; 
Iron  axes,  knives  and  chains. 
Iron  augers,  saws  and  planes; 
Iron  globules  in  our  blood, 
Iron  particles  in  food  ; 
Iron  lightning-rods  on  spires, 
Iron  telegraphic  wires; 
Iron  hammers,  nails  and  screws — 
Iron  everything  we  use.  ^ 

Iron!  How  commonplace  it  is!  We  are  surrounded  by  it  on  every 
hand.  We  who  have  grown  up  in  the  iron  and  machine  age  feel  toward  iron 
much  as  we  feel  toward  the  lakes  and  clouds.  It  is  just  there.  Iron?  Why, 
of  course,  we  must  have  it  to  live  by ;  we  couldn't  possibly  get  along  without  it. 

EXERCISE 

Imagine  yourself  with  several  others  starting  out  on  a  trip  through  great 
unexplored  forests  and  wild  prairie  lands  Hke  those  of  South  America  and 
some  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia.  The  trip  is  going  to  last  several  months  and 
you  may  stay  so  long  that  you  will  need  a  log  cabin ;  very  likely  you  will  need 
to  plant  crops  in  order  to  raise  food  for  yourself  for  months  and  perhaps  for 

1  Used  by  permission  of  Educational  Publishing  Company,  Boston,  New  York, 
and  Chicago  Publishers. 


/ 


78 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


several  years  even.  What  are  some  of  the  things  you  would  take  with  you  ? 
Make  a  list  of  all  the  tools,  farming  implements,  utensils,  and  weapons  you 
think  you  would  need.  In  doing  so,  think  of  the  things  that  would  be  nec- 
essary in  order  to  build  a  house.  Think  what  a  calamity  would  befall  your 
party  if  you  should  have  failed  to  bring   

  (See  if  you  can  fill  in  the  blanks.)  with  which  to, 

fell  the   from  which  the  :  is  j.Ai 

or  if  you  should  lose  one  of  these  tools  after  you  got  there. 

In  building  your  cabin,  how  would  you  hold  your  logs  together?  In 
making  furniture,  how  would  the  legs  of  the  chairs  hold  together?  the  table 
top?  the  couch?  the  swinging  door ?  the  windows?  Will  you  have  plenty 
of  nails  of  different  sizes  to  fasten  all  these  things  together? 

What  about  the  needs  of  the  members  of  the  party  who  will  cook  the 
meals?  What  utensils  must  they  have?  List  the  household  utensils  you 
think  they  would  absolutely  have  to  have  to  prepare  meals  for  you.  How 

carefully  they  would  treasure  the  big  _^^±___L   and 

m  which  the  stews  and  roasts  would  be  cooked  over  the  blazing  fire! 

Now  what  material  are  these  tools  and  implements  and  utensils  you  have 
listed  made  of?  Wood?  Tin?  Copper?  Iron?  Stone?  Coal?  Dirt? 
In  the  list  you  made,  write  opposite  each  item  the  material  it  is  made  of. 

Is  it  any  wonder  that  your  great,  great  grandfather  prized  so  much  the 
little  metal  he  was  able  to  get  and  take  with  him  on  his  pioneering  trips  into 
the  wilderness  of  the  frontier?  A  little  piece  of  iron  was  of  immense  value 
to  him.  Yet  you  pay  as  little  attention  to  a  saw,  or  a  telephone  wire,  or  a 
steel  beam,  as  to  the  lumber  products  from  which  your  house  was  made. 
On  the  other  hand,  your  great,  great  grandfather  regarded  wood  much  as  you 
regard  iron,  just  taking  for  granted  there  was  any  amount  of  it.  And  when 
the  boys  and  girls  of  your  generation  become  men  and  women,  you  will  feel 
about  wood  much  as  he  felt  about  iron,  for  the  forests  are  going  fast  and  not 
enough  care  is  being  taken  to  replace  them.  Wood  is  getting  scarcer  and 
scarcer,  while  iron  seems  as  plentiful  as  ever.    Is  iron  as  plentiful  as  it  seems? 

1.     WHAT  WOULD  HAPPEN  IF  THE  IRON  MINES  OF 
AMERICA  COULD  NOT  BE  WORKED? 

lo  what  extent  does  your  life  today  depend  upon  iron?  Make  a  list  of 
the  things  that  you  do  every  day  that  depend  upon  iron.  Let  us  give  a  few 
examples  first.  The  water  which  runs  in  your  house  comes  through  iror 
pipes  under  the  streets  of  the  city.  Hie  street  car  that  you  ride  on  hi 
wheels  made  of  iron ;  the  brakes  and  frame  work,  the  controllers  and  springs 
are  of  iron.  It  runs  upon  rails  made  from  iron.  The  furnace  that  heats 
your  house  in  winter  is  iron  in  many  of  its  parts.    The  trains  that  bring  your 


IRON  IN  INDUSTRIAL  LIFE 


79 


food  to  town,  the  wagons,  the  automobiles,  the  delivery  trucks  and  freight 
wagons  which  form  such  an  important  part  of  our  transportation  system  to- 
day, could  not  be  in  existence  if  it  were  not  for  steel  and  iron. 

The  public  buildings  in  our  cities  are  all  of  them  held  together  by  a 
strong  skeleton  of  iron  beams  and  columns.  Probably  cities  as  we  know 
them  today  could  not  exist  without  iron.  In  your  school  you  have  an  audit- 
orium. Is  it  wide  or  long?  When  you  are  in  it  some  time  look  up  at  the 
ceihng  and  notice  how  necessary  it  is  that  great  beams  of  iron  or  steel  be 
used  to  hold  iip  the  roof  above  it.  No  other  materials  that  we  have  now 
could  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  elevators  that  you  ride  up  and  down 
on  in  your  schools  or  public  buildings  are  made  of  iron.  So,  too,  are  the 
great  bridges  over  wide  rivers;  the  Brooklyn  Bridge,  for  example,  which 
connects  Brooklyn  and  New  York,  is  hundreds  of  feet  long  and  all  made 
of  iron.  There  are  bridges  across  the  Mississippi,  across  the  Missouri,  the 
Ohio,  the  Illinois,  the  Hudson,  made  of  iron.  It  it  were  not  for  iron,  one 
would  have  to  cross  rivers  by  slow  and  time-wasting  ferry  boats. 

Add  other  things  that  are  made  of  iron  to  your  list. 

Is  there  any  doubt  in  your  mind  about  the  immense  importance  of  iron 
in  our  contemporary  civilization  ? 

2.      HOW  DOES  LIFE  IN  THE  CITY  DEPEND  UPON  IRON? 

We  found  that  cities  such  as  we  have  in  America  could  not  exist  without 
an  adequate  transportation  system  and  a  continuous  supply  of  coal.  We 
found,  too,  that  transportation  depended  on  coal.  This  means  that  if  the 
supply  of  coal  stops  our  whole  mechanical  civilization  is  upset. 

Now  would  this  be  true  of  iron?  If  our  iron  mines  should  stop  run- 
ning today,  how  soon  would  our  daily  lives  be  affected  ?  Tomorrow?  (Would 
'  transportation  stop  at  once?)  Next  week?  Next  month?  Or  in  three  or 
four  months,  as  with  coal  ? 

No,  not  for  a  year,  or  perhaps  several  years,  would  we  as  a  whole  people 
feel  it.  But  very  soon  the  railroad  repair  shops  would  be  affected,  for 
trains  are  continually  wearing  out  and  in  need  of  constant  repair,  as  are  all 
•  machines  and  mechanical  things. 

What  about  the  thousands  of  machine  shops  of  the  country  ?  Could  they 
run  long  without  a  continuous  supply  of  iron  and  steel  ?  No,  for  such  plants 
keep  only  a  very  limited  supply  on  hand ;  the  steel  mills  are  shipping  to  them 
all  the  time.  Of  course  the  steel  mills  with  their  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
workers  would  themselves  soon  close  down. 

How  about  cities  ?  Could  new  bridges  be  built  ?  Could  new  skyscrapers 
be  put  up?  Could  old  ones  be  replaced?  Could  tunnels  be  dug,  subways, 
elevated  trains,  or  street  railways  be  constructed?  Could  automobiles  be 
provided  for  business  or  pleasure  ? 

Prepare  a  list  of  the  different  ways  in  which  your  own  personal  life 
would  be  affected  if  our  iron  supply  should  give  out. 


80 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

How  Iron  is  Mined  and  Steel  is  Manufactured 


Fig.  43  ^ 


The  making  of  the  steel  in  your  bridges,  buildings,  locomotives  and 
machines  begins  here.  These  are  steam  shovels  scooping  up  iron  ore 
(Did  you  think  it  was  dirt? — Valuable  dirt!)  in  the  Lake  Superior  iron 
mining  region.  (Find  this  iron  region  on  an  economic  map  in  your  geo- 
graphy.) For  a  few  cents  a  ton  the  shovels  load  it  on  to  the  cars.  Men 
do  not  handle  it,  lifting  is  done  by  machinery.  The  ore  is  carried  to  the 
wharves  at  Duluth,  Minnesota  (Find  Duluth  on  the  map)  and: 


Fig.  44  2 


dumped  into  great  ore  boats  like  these.    These  take  it  down  the  Great 
Lakes  to  the  terminals  near  the  steel  mills  at  South  Chicago,  Gary, 
Indiana,  Cleveland  or  Pittsburg.   The  lakes  freeze  in  winter  so  in  seven 
warm  months  the  boats  must  ship  the  year's  supply.    So  the  lake  docks  - 
are  generally  piled  high  with  surplus  ore. 

1  From  Cotter.  A.:  "The  United  State.s  Steel  Corporation."  Courtesy  of  Double- 
day  Page  &  Company. 

2  Cotter,  A:    Ibid.    Doubleday  Page  &  Co. 


IRON  IN  INDUSTRIAL  LIFE 


Fig.  45  i 


At  the  terminals  it  is  taken  from  the  boat,  loaded  into  freight  cars 
by  more  giant  machinery,  more  saving  in  lifting  impossibly  heavy 
materials.  Man  does  not  handle  the  ore  directly  from  the  time  it  is 
scooped  up  at  the  mines  until  it  is  dumped  into  the  blast  furnace  at  the 
steel  mill.  Unloading  by  these  machines  costs  less  per  ton  than  it  costs 
you  to  mail  a  letter. 


The  ore  is  brought  to  steel  mills  like  these,  the  blazing  flames  from 
which  you  can  see  for  miles  at  night.  The  ore  is  taken  above  the  blast 
furnace  on  cars,  the  bottoms  of  which  open,  letting  the  ore  drop  into  bins. 
These  too  open  at  the  bottom  into  little  boxes  which  measure  the  right 
amount  of  ore  and  from  these  it  is  dropped  into  the  mouth  of  the  great 
furnace.    Here  the  ore  is  heated  to  an  intense  heat,  and  the  impurities 


2,  Cotter,  A.:  Ibid 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Fig.  47  i 


are  drawn  off  leaving  molten  "pig"  iron  to  be  poured  into  httle  moulds 
like  these  in  which  it  travels  on  endless  chains  to  vats  where  it  is  cooled 
in  water.  There  it  is  lifted  by  machinery  and  carried  away  to  the  mill 
where  the  crude  "pig"  iron  is  made  into  steel  products.  The  chief  dif- 
ference between  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  and  steel  is  in  the  hardness  and 
toughness  caused  by  the  amount  of  carbon  mixed  with  the  iron. 


Fig.  48  - 


The  crude  iron,  20  tons  at  a  time,  is  turned  into  steel  in  great 
"Bessemer"  converters  like  that  at  the  left  where  a  terrific  blast  of  air  is 
driven  through  the  molten  iron  by  the  force  of  an  engine.  The  converters 
are  swung  as  easily  by  electric  "cranes"  (moving  machines)  as  you 
swing  a  rope.  They  pour  the  purified  molten  steel  into  moulds  standing 
in  a  little  train;  this  conveys  it  to  the  hydraulic  machine  which  draws 
the  mold  from  the  red  hot  "ingot"  of  steel. 


2,  Cotter.  A. :  Ibid 


IRON  IN  INDUSTRIAL  LIFE 


Fig.  49  i 

The  ingot,  perhaps  7000  pounds,  is  shown  travelling  by  machinery 
to  the  rolling  mill  where  it  is  to  be  run  between  sets  of  rollers,  still  hot. 
There  it  will  be  shaped  under  great  machine  pressure  into  rails  for  your 
trains  to  ride  over,  a  beam  for  the  floor  of  a  great  city  building  or  a  new 
highway  bridge,  or  perhaps  even  into  wire  fence  or  small  steel  manu- 
factured goods. 


Fig.  50  2 


Here  is  one  example  of  the  last  stage  of  the  various  ones  from  iron 
ore  to  manufactured  goods,  the  making  of  a  steel  tube.  Notice  how  every- 
thing is  done  by  machinery,  and  how  everything  is  massive.  We  speak 
always  of  tons,  rarely  of  pounds,  in  the  steel  business. 


2,  Cotter,  A. :  Ibid 


84 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Readings:   How  Iron  is  Mined  And  Steel 
Manufactured 
exercise 

Look  up  at  least  one  of  the  topics  in  the  following  list  and  report  on  it 
to  the  class.    They  all  have  to  do  with  steel-making. 

1.  The  blast  furnace  6.  Iron  ore — where  it  comes  from 

2.  The  process  of  puddling  7.  How  iron  ore  is  transported  to 

3.  The  Bessemer  process  the  mills 

4.  The  by-products  oven  8.  Steel — how    it    is    made  by 

5.  Coke — what  it  is  and  how  it  machin^ 

is  made 

Here  is  a  list  of  books  that  contain  information  on  these  topics.  If  they 
are  not  in  your  school  library,  you  may  find  the  ones  you  want  in  the  public 
library  of  your  town. 

Allen,  Nellie  B.:  United  States.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  1910. 
Pages  166-183. 

Carpenter,  Frank  G.  Hoiv  the  World  is  Housed.  Ameri- 
can Book  Company,  New  York,  1915.   Pages  142-172. 

Chase,  A.  and  Clow,  E. :  Stories  of  Industry.  Educational 
Publishing  Co.,  New  York,  1915.    Vol.  I,  pages  63-98. 

Rocheleau,  W.  F. :  Great  American  Industries.  First 
Book — Minerals.  A.  Flanagan  Co.,  Chicago,  1902. 
Pages  75-112. 

Smith,  J.  Russell :    The  Story  of  Iron  and  Steel,    D.  Ap- 

pleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1920. 
Tappan,  Eva  M. :     Diggers  in  the  Earth.  Houghton, 

Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  1916.    Pages  57-64. 

Look  through  your  geography  also  for  pictures  of  iron  and  steel  manu- 
facturing. 

To  the  Teachers  We  suggest  that  you  spend  one  or  two 
class  hours  on  reports  on  these  topics.  If  it  is  possible  to 
take  an  excursion  through  an  iron  mine  or  steel  works,  it 
would  be  highly  desirable  to  do  so. 

3.      WHERE  IS  THE  IRON  OF  THE  WORLD  PRODUCED? 

If  iron  is  so  important  in  this  industrial  age  of  ours,  two  questions  ought 
to  be  answered :  ( 1 )  Which  are  the  peoples  who  are  fortunate  enough  to 
have  it?  (2)  Which  of  the  nations  using  it  to  a  large  extent  are  industrial 
nations  ? 

What  do  you  learn  from  a  study  of  Fig.  51  ?  From  it  make  a  list  of  the 
countries  in  which  you  would  expect  to  fuid  the  great  mechanical  industries 
of  the  world. 

Now  turn  to  page  91  in  Part  II.    From  Fig.  33  make  a  list  of  the  coun- 
tries which  produce  the  largest  share  of  the  world's  iron.    Which  ones  use 
the  largest  share  ? 


IRON  IN  INDUSTRIAL  LIFE 


85 


A  >Vorld  Map  of 
Iron  Ore  Resources 
—  Percentages  Are 
Based  on  Ah  Esti- 
mated "Actual  Re- 
serve"  of  32.555.- 
300,000  Tons,  with 
f'otential  Reserve 
Much  Larger  —  the 
Circles  Represent 
Only  Reserves  in 
Excess  of  aOO.oOO,- 
000  Tons 


\         INDIAN  OCEAN 


Fig.  51 

What  are  the  differences  in  the  two  lists  you  have  made,  the  one  from 
Fig.  51  and  the  other  from  Fig.  33  of  Part  11.  Why  should  there  be  any 
differences  ? 

What  do  both  lists  show  you  about  the  rank  of  the  United  States  in  the 
production  and  use  of  iron  and  steel  ?  Is  your  country  one  of  the  great  "in- 
dustrial" countries  of  the  world  ? 

Are  there  countries  which  at  present  do  not  use  much  iron  but  may  do  so 
in  the  future  ?    Which  ones  especially  ?    Can  you  account  for  this  ? 

4.     WHERE  ARE  THE  IRON  DEPOSITS  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES? 

Turn  to  the  economic  maps  of  the  United  States  in  your  geography.  In 
what  states  do  you  find  the  deposits  of  iron  ? 

Fig.  38,  page  63,  shows  where  the  iron  and  steel  factories  are  located.  How 
do  the  iron  deposit  states  compare  with  the  iron  and  steel  factory  states?  What 
decided  differences  are  there  in  the  locations?  Which  states  are  both  deposit 
and  factory  states  ? 


5.     WHY  ARE  THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES 
SO  FAR  FROM  THE  BEST  IRON  MINES? 

The  best  iron  mines  in  the  United  States  are  in  the  Lake  Superior  region. 

This  is  about    miles  from  the  steel  plants  near 

How  many? 

 A —  and  about  

Where  are  the  nearest  ones?  How  many? 

miles  from  the  great  steel  mills  in  the  1  :   region. 

(Fill  in  the  grreatest  steel  manufac- 
turing center.) 


86 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Why  should  this  be?  Why  shouldn't  the  mills  be  located  right  at  the 
mines,  or  at  least  near-by  ? 

A.     WHAT  HAS  THE  LOCATION  OF  THE  MARKET  FOR  STEEL  GOODS  TO  DO  WITH 
THE  LOCATION  OF  STEEL  MILLS? 

There  are  two  reasons  why  the  steel  markets  and  the  steel  mills  are  not 
in  the  same  places.  One  has  to  do  with  the  ease  of  shipping  the  finished 
steel  rails,  beams,  and  other  manufactured  products.  Turn  back  to  Fig.  20 
which  shows  where  the  industrial  zone  is.  In  what  section  of  the  country 
are  the  largest  number  of  people  who  would  be  buying  and  using  iron  and 
steel  goods  concentrated?  Where  are  the  factories,  machine  shops,  textile 
mills,  and  manufacturing  plants  of  various  sorts  located  ?  Are  they  in  Min- 
nesota near  the  iron  "range"?  Or  are  they  scattered  from  Chicago  to  New 
England  along  through  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  Massachusetts? 

Do  you  see  one  important  reason  now  why  the  iron  and  steel  industries 
are  located  where  they  are? 

B.     WHAT   HAS   THE    LOCATION    OF   COAL    MINES    TO   DO  WITH 
THE  LOCATION  OF  STEEL  INDUSTRIES? 

Point  on  the  wall  map  to  the  location  of  our  coal  mines.  Now  point  to 
the  location  of  the  iron  and  steel  factories. 

Do  you  see  a  second  reason  why  the  iron  and  steel  industries  are  located 
where  they  are  ? 


There  may  be  other  reasons  why  the  steel  industry  grew  up  where  it  did. 
See  how  many  you  can  list  on  the  blackboard. 

Make  a  summary  in  your  notebook  of  all  the  reasons  you  can  think  of. 


VII.    HOW  THE  CITY  GETS  ITS  WATER 


1.    Our  Dependence  Upon  Pure  Water  and  Plenty  of  it 

"We  had  been  six  hours  on  the  road  from  New  York  to  the  heart  of  the 
Catskills.  The  younger  members  of  the  party  had  been  clamoring  for  food 
every  mile  since  leaving  Kingston.  We  stopped  by  the  side  of  one  of  the 
crystal  mountain  streams  and  the  lunch  was  spread  on  a  shaded  mossy  mound. 

''In  the  midst  of  our  meal  one  of  the  Catskill  'yellow  fellows'  who  guard 
the  water  system  came  along,  and,  on  urgent  invitation,  joined  us.  He  told 
us  tl>at  he  had  been  up  to  the  reservoir  to  see  some  campers  who  didn't  under- 
stand [about  the  regulations]. 

'It's  a  busy  job ;  but  there's  satisfaction  in  it,'  he  said.  'Take  these  people 
I've  just  been  to  see.  They're  New  Yorkers  when  they're  home.  This  very 
water  which -they  were  polluting  and  poisining  with  banana  skins,  chicken 
bones,  and  lunch  boxes  is  the  water  which  they  expect  to  have  delivered  in 
their  homes  pure  and  clean.  Why,  they  even  pay  us  fellows  for  seeing  to  it 
and  actually  protecting  them  against  their  own  acts;  ...  and  they  never 
thought  of  that  until  I  reasoned  it  out  with  them.  ...  we  fellows  have  been 
working  at  this  twelve  years,  you  know.  The  longer  we  stay  the  easier  it  is, 
because  we  make  it  a  point  to  turn  every  thoughtless  trespasser  into  an  agent 
to  help  us  keep  things  in  shape. 

"It  was  lonesome  the  first  years,  but  now  I  can't  go  back.  I  know  every 
shaft,  every  stream,  and  every  pleasant  Camping  place  in  my  territory,  and 
my  job  is  here.  It's  some  job,  too, 'isn't  it?  It  scares  me  when  I  think  of 
the  millions  of  folks  down  there  who  would  be  sick  if  things  were  not  right 
up  at  this  end. 

"Well,  so  long.  Going  through  or  going  back  tonight?  Maybe  I'll  see 
you  on  the  return  trip.    Tell  the  fellow  at  Lexington  you  saw  me  south  of  the 

v^Ut. 

"As  his  tannish-colored  figure  went  swinging  down  the  road  I  heard  one 
juvemle  New  Yorker  say  to  the  other,  "What  d'ye  know  about  that?  A  reg- 
ular city  cop  away  up  here  in  the  mountains!  Come  on,  let's  pick  up."  and 
I  said  to  m^yself,  "What  a  teacher  and  what  results!"  ^ 


,  "Mother,  the  water  is  terribly  dirty.  We  can't  drink  this  water," 
claimed  Helen  Watson  as  she  filled  the  water  pitcher  for  supper. 

"Let  it  run  awhile  and  see  if  it  doesn't  clear  up,"  replied  her  mother. 


ex- 


^"The  Outlook,"  vol.  123,  page  182,  Oct.  1,  191! 


88 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


The  Watsons  lived  in  Urbana,  Illinois  where  the  water  came  from  wells 
owned  by  a  private  water  company.  .  „ 

"No,  it  is  still  a  dirty  brown  and  I  have  let  it  run  fully  three  mmutes 
said  Helen  after  a  time,    "What the  matter  with  it  ? 

"That's  easy  to  answer,"  broke  in  brother  Tom  who  had  enured  the 
house  in  time  to  hear  his  sister's  question.  That's  easy  to  answer  There  s  a 
bad  fire  down  town.  Lewis's  store  is  burned  to  the  ground,  it  s  burning  yet 
and  they  need  so  much  water  down  there  that  they  can't  stop  to  run  it  through 
the  filter.  You  know,  mother,  the  firemen  are  about  helpless  in  this  town. 
The  wells  aren't  big  enough  nor  the  pumps  strong  enough  to  handle  a  hre 
such  as  this  one.  Jack  Donnelly,  one  of  the  firemen,  told  me  that  they  would 
have  put  the  fire  out  easily  if  they  could  have  gotten  any  pressure  on  the  water 
main  That  stream  after  30  minutes  was  about  the  size  and  force  of  our 
garden  hose.  With  a  good  wind  the  whole  town  would  go  up  in  smoke. 
Why  don't  they  do  something  to  protect  us  against  fire?" 


TYPHOID  FEVER  EPIDEMIC  BREAKS  OUT, 

FIFTY  CASES  REPORTED  YESTERDAY 
IMPURE  WATER  THOUGHT  TO  BE  THE  CAUSE 


Sterling,  Conn.,  October  17,  1922— Sterl- 
ing faces  a  serious  epidemic  of  typhoid 
fever  Fiftv  cases  have  been  reported  to 
the  Board  'of  Health  in  the  last  three 
days.  Most  of  the  cases  appear  to  be  in 
West  Sterling.  Investigations  of  Agent 
Houghton  show  that  the  water  supply  of 


West  Sterling  residents  is  the  Asburnharn 
Reservoir.  Experts  in  water  analysis 
from  the  State  Board  of  Health  have  been 


\Z%o::i\rnl.\r-ZZ  L.  hr  e  .enrt;;  a^d  are  now  examining  the  water 
•.'lt.''°^i,°L^h:  .Ls  at,Deartobein  of  this  reservoir  for  traces  of  typhoid 


germs. 


PIONEERS  SETTLED  NEAR  WATER  SUPPLY 

The  earlv  colonists  in  New  England,  New  York,  and  Virginia  always 
located  their  settlements  near  an  abundant  water  supply.  For  exainple, 
when  the  Pilgrims  reached  America  Captain  Miles  Standish  was  made  head 
of  an  exploring  partv  to  locate  a  suitable  place  on  which  to  build  a  town. 
According  to  journals  of  the  Plymouth  Colony,  Captain  Standish  and  his 
party  after  several  days  of  explorations  "marched  into  ye  land  and  found 
divers  cornfields  and  little  running  brooks,  a  place  fit  for  situation. 


"The  Dutch  found  Manhattan  a  well-watered  island,  traversed  by  many 
brooks  abounding  in  (ish ;  «  ith  a  large  fresh-uater  pond,  known  as  the  Co\- 
lect,'  fed  by  numerous  springs.  The  lower  part  of  the  island  was  underlaid 
witli  sand  uhich  readilv  yielded  fresh  water  a  few  feet  above  sea  level.  .  .  . 


HOW  THE  CITY  GETS  ITS  WATER 


89 


''The  population  of  the  island  by  1664  was  but  1500,  and  water  was 
obtained  from  private  wells,  although  by  1658  a  public  well  was  dug  near 
Bowling  Green.  .  .  .  Very  soon,  however,  as  the  town  grew,  the  wells  be- 
came contaminated  and  the  supply  of  water  insufficient.  Those  who  could 
afford  it  sent  for  water  from  distant  wells.  One  well  in  particular,  known 
as  the  'Tea-water  Pump,'  was  particularly  noted ;  so  that  its  neighborhood  be- 
came so  congested  with  water-carts  that  the  spout  of  the  pump  was  raised 
and  lengthened  to  permit  pedestrians  to  pass  under  it."  ^ 


Where  did  the  western  pioneer  clear  his  tract  of  land  and  build  his  home  ; 
What  determined  his  location;  Neariiess  to  water— Av'mking  water  for  him- 
self and  family,  and  for  his  cattle.  If  he  planned  carefully  he  located  his 
home  below  his  spring  or  well.  Why?  To  prevent  that  water  from  being 
contammated.  At  first  he  had  to  carry  the  water  to  the  house  from  the 
sprmg  or  brook.  Later  when  the  work  of  building  a  home  and  of  getting 
the  land  cleared  and  planted  was  done,  he  had  time  to  devise  means  of  getting 

.  his  water  to  his  cabin  more  easily.  A  rude  pipe,  hollowed  logs  perhaps,  was 
used  to  bring  the  water  to  his  door,  even  into  the  cabin.    In  later  years  a  well 

,  was  driven  deep  into  the  ground,  and  the  water  was  pumped  up  into  a  tank  by 
a  wmdmill,  from  which  it  was  piped  into  the  house. 


Do  you  live  in  the  city?  Do  you  know  where  the  water  that  vou  drink 
and  use  in  your  house  comes  from?  Several  times  a  day  no  doubt  you  go 
to  the  faucet  in  the  kitchen  or  in  the  bathroom  to  get  a  nice  drink  of  cool 
water.  Have  you  any  idea  of  the  complicated  arrangements  that  lie  behind 
that  easy  turning  on  of  the  faucet  in  your  home?  Even  the  poorest  of  our 
people  in  American  cities  today  have  water  at  their  ready  command.  This  is 
probably  one  of  the  greatest  achievements  of  this  remarkable  industrial  world 
of  ours.  Without  water  systems  as  efficient  as  those  of  today  are,  could 
cities  like  ours  exist  ?   Let  us  study  the  matter. 

How  dependent  on  water  are  human  beings?  Do  you  know  how  long  a 
person  can  go  without  water?  How  long  can  cattle ?  Horses?  Other  ani- 
mals? Can 'they  go  as  long  without  water  as  without  food?  Have  you 
ever  been  on  a  long  hike  lasting  most  of  a  day  in  which  you  have  had  to  go 
without  a  drink?  If  so,  do  you  remember  how  parched  and  dry  your  mouth 
and  throat  became  after  three  or  four  hours,  and  what  great  relief  came  when 
you  were  able  to  get  that  first  cool  drink?  Imagine  what  it  would  be  if 
you  had  to  go  all  day  and  then  all  that  night  without  water!  Before  the 
first  day  had  passed  you  would  feel  real  distress.  During  the  next  4ay  you 
would^rch  and  search  for  water,  doubtless  becoming  more  and  more  tired 

&  ^o^!'iii:^^lT^ovC^^^^^^^         7^^'"'  ^"^^^^  ^'^y''  John  Wiley 


90 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


and  more  and  more  thirsty.  Imagine  what  it  would  be  to  be  lost  in  the  woods 
as  so  many  frontier  people  were!  Or  on  a  great  plain,  or  sandy  desert,  and 
be  unable  to  find  water!  After  the  second  day  you  would  probably  be  so 
tired  you  couldn't  walk.  And  then,  unless  someone  with  watej  chanced 
along,  your  strength  would  continue  to  give  out  until  finally  you  would  die. 


2.     DO  PEOPLE  LIVE  IN  REGIONS  OF  LITTLE  WATER? 

Turn  to  Fig.  3,  page  9  of  Part  II,  which  shows  where  people  are  living  in 
the  different  regions  of  the  world.  Do  you  find  the  white  areas  on  the  map 
where  the  Sahara  Desert  and  the  Arabian  Desert  are?  Notice  how  that 
whole  region  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  United  States.  Yet  there  are  almost  no 
people  there  and  we  have  106,000,000 !  In  the  Southern  part  of  Arabia  there 
are  more  than  300,000  square  miles  of  absolute  desert  which  people  have 
never  known  much  about  and  which  is  probably  entirely  uninhabited.  This 
area  as  large  as  Germany  and  Italy  combined  has  almost  no  people.  Germany 
and  Italy  today  have  a  population  of  about  100,000,000. 

The  great  Sahara  Desert  to  which  we  referred  probably  has  fewer  people 
than  the  Arabian  Desert.  Another  great  desert,  the  one  that  has  the  smallest 
number  of  inhabitants  of  any  of  the  dry  deserts,  is  in  Australia. 

In  our  own  countrv  Nevada  is  a  desert  state.  Here  there  is  an  average  of 
less  than  one  person  to  a  square  mile.  But  in  occasional  fertile  places  people 
are  gathered  close  together.  We  call  those  scattered  places  in  deserts  where 
there  is  water  and  a  little  vegetation  oases.  Contrast  the  population  in 
Nevada  with  that  of  one  of  the  New  England  states  like  Massachusetts, 
which  has  more  than  450  persons  to  the  square  mile.  Seventy-five  per  cent 
of  the  inhabitants  of  a  state  like  Massachusetts  live  in  cities.  Of  course, 
one  of  the  reasons  for  this  is  adequate  rainfall,  which  not  only  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  people  to  live,  but  also  makes  it  possible  for  them  to  work  in  fac- 
tories and  great  manufacturing  plants. 

The  deserts  to  which  we  have  referred  have  been  hot  and  dry  ones.  Per- 
hap?  you  will  be  even  more  interested  to  find  that  there  are  :'cold"  deserts 
that  have  as  few  people  living  on  them  as  the  hot  ones.  The  northern 
provinces  of  Canada  are  good  illustrations.  Locate  them  on  the  population 
map  P'lge  9  of  Part  II.  These  northern  provinces,  not  including  the 
Labrador  Coast  and  the  Yukon  mining  region  in  the  northwest,  have  an 
area  of  2  million  square  miles.  How  many  people  do  you  think  live  there? 
Only  20,000.  Compare  the  area  of  these  northern  Canadian  provinces 
with  that  of  Europe.  If  we  exclude  Russia,  Europe  is  no  larger  than  the 
Canadian  provinces,  yet  Jt  has  16,500  inhabitants  to  every  one  inhabitant  m 
the  provinces.^ 


HOW  THE  CITY  GETS  ITS  WATER 


91 


Another  illustration  is  the  Antarctic  region.  So  far  as  we  know,  it  has 
not  a  single  inhabitant. 

Now  turn  to  a  rainfall  map  in  your  geography.  The  rainfall  of  a  region 
is  measured  by  the  number  of  inches  (deep)  of  water  that  falls  in  that  region 
in  a  year.  Point  out  the  areas  on  the  wall  map  that  have  less  than  10  inches 
of  rainfall  a  year.  How  do  these  regions  agree  with  the  regions  vour  popu- 
lation map  shows  to  have  few  people?  Now  point  out  on  the  wall  map  the 
regions  that  have  a  moderate  amount  of  rainfall,  say  40  to  80  inches?  Com- 
pare these  with  the  regions  where  population  has  become  dense.  Is  there  any 
relation  between  amount  of  rainfall  and  density  of  population  ?  What  is 
the  relation? 

Is  it  just  in  the  places  of  least  rainfall  that  there  are  few  people  living? 
What  about  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  more,  than  80  inches  each  year? 
Are  there  people  in  these  regions? 

As  a  result  of  your  study,  see  if  you  can  make  a  statement  in  which  you 
tell  what  seems  to  be  the  most  desirable  am.ount  of  rainfall  for  the  comfort 
of  people  in  general. 

3.      HOW  MUCH  WATER  IS  USED  IN  CITIES? 

Have  you  any  idea  how  much  water  you  use  in  different  ways  each  day? 
You  probably  will  not  want  to  believe  it  when  we  tell  you  that  if  you  live 
m  a  city,  especially  a  large  city,  you  as  an  average  citizen  probably  use  from 
50  to  75  gallons  of  water  a  day.  If  you  live  in  a  small  town,  very  likely  you 
use  only  from  15  to  30  gallons  a  day,  and  if  you  live  in  a  little  village, 
which  has  no  public  water  supply,  you  probably  use  only  a  few  gallons  a  day! 

How  can  this  enormous  use  of  water  in  a  city  be  possible,  vou  ask  ?  What 
is  it  used  for?   Well,  of  course  it  is  not  all  used  for  drinking^  for  even  if  you 
drink  a  great  deal  of  water,  you  probably  do  not  consume  each  day  more 
than  two  or  three  quarts.    So  the  large  use  of  water  is  not  accounted  for  in 
that  way.    It  can  not  be  just  for  washing  either,  for  that  would  not  take  on 
the  average  more  than  several  gallons  per  day  per  person.    No,  the  large 
uses,  aside  from  the  huge  waste  which  is  quite  common  in  our  city  water 
supplies,  is  for  purposes  like  manufacturing,  watering  the  streets  and  lawns 
in  the  summer  time,  and  defending  the  city  against  fires.    Now,  the  Ameri- 
can cities  are  very  wasteful  indeed  of  their  water.    In  the  first  place  we 
waste  a  great  deal  in  our  houses,  perhaps  because  it  comes  to  us  so  easily.  If 
we  had  to  carry  all  the  water  we  use  in  buckets  from  a  spring  or  well,  we 
would  be  more  careful.    What  ever  comes  easily  tends  to  go  easily.  Then, 
too,  in  the  big  water  mains  of  our  city  systems  and  in  the  ,  pipes  in  the  houses 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  waste  by  leakage.    Probably  the  greatest  use  of  water 
comes  in  the  large  manufacturing  plants  of  our  towns  and  cities.    Did  you 
ever  notice  how  the  factories  of  a  community  are  generally  spread  out  along 
the  banks  of  a  stream?    They  are  located  in  this  fashion  in  order  to  have 


92  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

water  supply  close  at  hand.  That  is  one  reason  of  course  why  in  New  Eng- 
land and  the  hilly  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  there  are  so  many  more 
factories  than  in  the  Middle  West. 

4.  WHERE  DO  CITIES  GET  THEIR  WATER? 
(a)  Most  of  Our  Rainfall  Comes  From  the  Oceans. 
The  water  upon  which  our  lives  depend  from  day  to  day  comes,  of  course, 
from  rainfall.  But  where  does  the  rainfall  come  from?  It  comes,  doesn't  it, 
from  clouds  of  tiny  drops  which  have  been  formed  from  the  cooling  water- 
vapors  in  the  air.  Does  the  vapor  come  from  our  rivers  and  lakes?  Stu- 
dents of  this  matter  tell  us  that  it  does  not.  They  tell  us  that  the  rainfall 
that  waters  the  broad  wheat  fields  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  the  Dakotas, 
Illinois,  and  Indiana  is  blown  there  in  clouds  from  the  oceans  1000  to  2000 
miles  away.  They  tell  us  that  if  you  put  all  the  rivers  and  lakes  in  the  United 
States  together  the  area  would  be  only  one  or  two  hundredths  as  great  as  the 
area  of  the  oceans.  This  area  is  two  and  a  half  times  as  great  as  that  of  all 
the  lands.  "If  all  the  lakes  in  the  world  should  be  evaporated,  they  would 
supply  only  one-fifteenth  of  the  rain  that  falls  each  year  on  the  lands."  So 
you  see,  we  get  our  rainfall  largely  from  the  oceans. 

If  our  crops  depended  only  on  the  moisture  which  was  evaporated  from 
the  land  and  the  lakes  and  the  rivers,  we  would  starve.  Crops  would  fail 
because  the  rainfall  would  soon  cease,  and  all  of  the  continents  would  dry 
up  and  become  deserts.  That  would  mean  of  course  that  human  beings  and 
animals  and  vegetation  would  disappear  from  the  face  of  the  earth. 


(b)  Cities  in  Hilly  Regions  Get  Their  Water  From  Storage  Reservoirs 
High  Up  in  The  Hills 
If  you  have  ever  had  drives  or  hikes  outside  of  the  cities  in  hilly  country 
like  New  England  or  in  the  Appalachian  region,  you  have  no  doubt  come  upon 
reservoirs  of  water  built  with  great  embankments  or  dams?  Have  you  ever 
noticed  that  these  reservoirs  are  always  up  in  the  hills  and  that  every  time 
there  is  a  town  or  city  near-by  ?  Did  you  ever  encounter  such  a  reservoir  on 
the  plains  of  Illinois,  or  Iowa,  or  Kansas  with  streams  of  clear  water  running 
down  from  it  over  white,  sandy  channels,  as  is  so  frequently  true  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  New  York?  No,  instead  of  that,  near  each  little  town  or  city 
you  find  great  iron  standpipes.  These  standpipes  or  tanks,  standing  50  to 
100  feet  in  the  air,  are  frequently  the  first  sign  to  a  traveller  on  the  plains 
that  a  community  is  near-by.  They  hold  the  water  supply,  at  least  the  em- 
ergency supply,  of  the  town. 

But  people  who  live  in  hilly  regions  conserve  the  rainfall  in  reservoirs. 
They  use  the  natural  little  lakes  that  form  in  the  hollows  of  the  hills.  They 
connect  these  with  channels  or  with  large  steel  pipes  or  "flumes."    The  water 


HOW  THE  CITY  GETS  ITS  WATER  93 

flows  down  gradually  into  distributing  reservoirs,  from  where  it  is  sent  out 
over  the  town  or  city  through  large  underground  pipes. 

Do  you  know  why  these  reservoirs  are  always  placed  higher  up  than  the 
cities?  They  are  so  placed  because  of  a  most  important  principle  which 
men  have  learned  how  to  use:  namely,  the  principle  that  water  in  a  pipe 
tries  to  rise  as  high  as  the  source  it  started  from.  For  this  reason  people  try 
to  build  their  reservoirs  at  points  higher  than  the  tallest  building  in  the  town 
or  city  which  the  reservoir  is  to  supply  with  water.  Of  course  as  the  water 
flows  through  the  big  iron  mains  under  the  streets,  and  from  these  small  pipes 
into  the  little  pipes  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  lead  the  water  to  the  faucets, 
the  force  of  the  water  becomes  very  much  decreased.  So,  in  order  to  guard 
against  danger  from  fire,  most  towns  and  cities  provide  for  more  water 
pressure  than  would  come  from  just  having  the  reservoir  high  up  in  the  hills. 
Sometimes  they  have  pumping  stations  which,  when  a  fire  breaks  out,  pumps 
water  from  reservoirs  or  tanks  into  the  mains  of  the  city.  This  enables  the 
firemen  to  play  a  stream  of  water  on  the  tops  of  the  highest  buildings.  And 
in  addition  they  sometimes  have  water  tanks  located  on  the  tops  of  the 
highest  buildings  themselves  as  a  further  protection  against  fire.  Have  you 
ever  seen  these?  If  you  watch  the  newspapers,  you  will  frequently  come 
upon  accounts  of  very  bad  fires  which  the  Fire  Department  has  been  unable 
to  control  because  the  water  pressure  was  not  high  enough, 
(c)    Cities  on  the  Plains  Pump  Their  Water  from  Rivers,  Lakes  or  Deep  Wells. 

Look  at  the  relief  map  of  Fig.  21  again.  Where  do  you  think  the  people 
on  the  great  western  plains  get  their  water?  There  are  almost  no  moun- 
tains or  even  high  hills  from  Ohio  clear  through  to  Nebraska  and  Kansas. 
When  the  rain  falls  on  the  soil  and  gradually  runs  off  these  level  plains  into 
the  more  shallow  rivers,  what  do  people  do  for  their  water  supply?  Of 
course  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  build  reservoirs,  and  even  if  they 
were  built,  the  water  would  not  be  high  enough  above  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages so  that  the  force  of  gravity  would  bring  it  up  into  the  houses  where  the 
people  want  to  use  it.    What  can  be  done  in  a  case  like  this? 

In  the  first  place,  the  towns  are  forced  to  use  water  from  the  rivers  and 
lakes.  One  of  the  most  important  duties  of  the  government  of  a  town  or 
city  is  to  provide  carefully  for  an  adequate  water  supply.  So  in  level  regions 
it  has  been  necessary  for  the  officials  to  find  some  way  to  take  the  water 
from  near-by  lakes,  ponds,  and  rivers.  Since  the  water  is  not  higher  than 
the  city,  it  must  be  pumped  into  pipes  with  sufficient  force,  or  pressure,  so 
that  it  can  be  drawn  even  to  the  tallest  buildings.  When  you  turn  on  the 
water,  do  you  notice  with  how  much  force  it  generally  comes  out?  Some- 
times, when  the  pressure  is  low,  it  just  barely  flows  perhaps.  That  means 
either  that  the  pumps  are  not  working  well  or  that  some  other  part  of 
the  town  is  using  an  unusually  large  supply  of  water.  A  great  fire  will, 
of  course,  reduce  the  pressure  because  of  the  huge  streams  of  water  running 
out  of  the  hydrants  at  the  same  time. 


94 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


So  in  level  regions,  city  governments  have  to  collect  taxes  from  the 
property-owners  to  build  w^ater  tanks,  pumping  stations,  to  buy  boilers, 
engines,  and  pumps,  and  to  lay  the  pipes  through  the  city.  In  hilly  country 
the  community  raises  the  money  for  dams  and  reservoirs,  for  cleaning  the 
site  and  keeping  the  water  clean,  for  building  channels  and  great  pipes  v^^ith 
w^hich  to  take  the  w^ater  dovv^n  to  the  community. 

But  there  are  many  communities  in  America  which  cannot  depend  upon 
streams  and  lakes  for  their  water  supply.  What  can  they  do?  They  have  to 
resort  to  digging  wells  just  as  farmers  do  now  out  in  the  country.  Does  it 
surprise  you  to  hear  that  a  city  may  get  its  water  from  wells  ?  Do  you  think 
this  means  that  each  house  and  apartment  building  has  its  own  well  ?  No,  the 
water  comes  to  the  buildings  through  large  mains  under  the  streets,  just  as 
in  the  case  of  the  other  communities  we  have  studied  about.  But  instead 
of  coming  from  streams  it  comes  from  wells  drilled  hundreds  of  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  is  done  by  driving  down  large  steel  pipes 
until  water  is  struck.  Then  if  there  is  pressure  behind  the  water,  as  there 
frequently  is,  the  water  comes  up  the  pipe  and  is  stored  in  tanks  from 
where  it  is  pumped  through  the  pipes  of  the  city.  When  there  is  no  pres- 
sure to  force  up  the  water,  however,  it  has  to  be  pumped  out  of  the  pipes. 

5.     THE   GROWTH  OF  A  CITY  DEPENDS  ON  WATER  SUPPLY 

You  have  learned  that  a  city  cannot  grow  very  large  without  having 
good  ways  of  transporting  its  people  and  their  goods,  and  of  communicating 
easily.  But,  it  is  clear  to  you,  isn't  it,  that  even  more  essential  than  trans- 
portation and  communication  is  a  water  supply  that  is  both  plentiful  and 
cheap.  Now  our  water  engineers  have  learned  how  to  construct  water 
systems  for  small  towns  and  cities  so  that  it  is  an  easy  matter.  But  when  a 
city  tends  to  grow  larger  and  larger,  the  difficulties  of  getting  good  water 
increase  and  the  problem  becomes  a  very  serious  one. 

Think  of  how  such  cities  as  Chicago,  New  York,  Boston,  and  Los 
Angeles  get  their  water!  Chicago  takes  hers  out  of  Lake  Michigan  by 
digging  a  great  tunnel,  many  feet  in  diameter,  under  the  lake  and  pumping 
the  water  through  the  pipes  of  the  city  from  a  pumping  station  three  miles 
out  from  the  shore.  Chicago's  trouble  lay  not  in  getting  eriough  water,  but 
in  getting  pure  water.  Formerly  the  sewage  of  the  city  was  emptied  into 
Lake  Michigan.  That  has  been  corrected  now,  however,  by  a  drainage 
canal,  which  connects  the  Lake  with  the  Illinois  River,  and  the  sewage  is 
carried  off  by  the  water  in  the  canal.  But  even  so,  Chicago  takes  its  water 
from  a  distance  of  three  miles  in  the  lake.  To  be  sure  it  is  fit  for  drinking 
it  is  run  through  a  filtration  process. 

New  York's  Water  System. 
Chicago,  then,  get's  its  water  riglit  at  the  border  of  the  city.  New 
York,  on  tlie  otlicr  hand,  is  forced  to  go  70  miles  up  into  the  Catskill  Moun- 


HOW  THE  CITY  GETS  ITS  WATER 


95 


tains,  to  build  tremendous  storage  reservoirs  and  huge  aqueducts,  and  to 
bring  its  water  all  that  distance  to  the  city. 

Study  the  relief  map  in  your  geography  which  shows  the  lay  of  the  land 
around  New  York.  Do  you  see  how  many  cities  surround  New  York  City,  each 
of  which  has  to  have  its  supply  ?  Once  the  territory  which  New  York  could 
draw  on  for  its  water  was  hemmed  in  by  these  surrounding  communities,  the 
great  city  had  to  go  farther  and  farther  out  into  the  open  country,  and 
pipe  its  water  from  a  long  distance.  Otherwise  it  could  not  continue  to 
grow,  for  without  sufficient  water  people  cannot  live. 

During  most  of  the  1'700's  the  people  of  New  York  City  depended  on 
their  private  wells,  but  in  1799  a  private  water  company — The  Manhattan 
Waterworks  Company — was  formed,  and  they  soon  piped  water  directly 
to  the  houses  of  the  people.  Would  you  believe  that  they  actually  used 
wooden  pipes!  You  see  that  was  before  people  had  learned  to  make  iron 
pipes  cheaply,  as  we  make  them  now.  In  the  early  1800's  this  company 
furnished  water  to  2000  families  and  owned  over  2500  miles  of  wooden 
pipe. 

But  the  city  grew  and  grew  so  that  when,  by  1840,  it  had  400,000  peo- 
ple there  was  not  enough  water.  This  time  the  engineers  went  way  out 
40  miles  to  Croton  and  piped  the  water  from  the  reservoir  there  to  a 
smaller  reservoir  in  Central  Park.  From  there  it  was  piped  to  another 
smaller  one — the  Murray  Hill  Reservoir.  This  was  located  in  the  square 
where  the  New  York  Public  Library  now  stands,  at  42w^  street  and  Fifth 
Avenue,  the  heart  of  the  great  city.  The  water  is  brought  to  the  city  by 
an  enormous  aqueduct  with  tunnels  that  are  about  a  dozen  feet  in  diameter, 
and  it  is  then  carried  across  the  Harlem  River  on  a  great  bridge  called  High 
Bridge. 

But  by  1900  the  population  of  the  city  had  reached  3,500,000;  and  again 
there  was  a  shortage  of  water.  This  time  the  city  government  went  still 
farther  away  to  the  Catskill  Mountains  and  built  additional  reservoirs. 
These  new  reservoirs  were  constructed  on  even  a  greater  scale  than  the 
Croton  Reservoir.  The  difficulties  in  building  them  were  very  great  indeed. 
All  of  the  large  rivers  and  lakes  in  the  region  were  cleaned  up  and  a  huge 
dam,  the  Ashokan  Dam,  was  built.  The  territory  covers  an  area  12  miles 
long  and  3  miles  wide,  and  the  reservoir  itself  stretches  over  10,000  acres. 
The  greatest  difficulty  they  had  in  getting  water  from  the  Ashokan  Reser- 
voir to  New  York  was  in  getting  it  across  the  Hudson  River.  This  was 
accomplished  by  boring  a  tunnel  1100  feet  under  the  river.  Now,  the  water 
is  forced  through  this  tunnel  and  carried  to  the  Croton  reservoir ;  thence  to 
the  city.  The  Ashokan  Dam  is  nearly  600  feet  above  sea  level,  so  that  there 
is  no  expense  for  pumping  the  water ;  it  flows  by  its  own  force  down  to  the 
city. 


96 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Boston's  Water  System. 

In  a  similar  way  Boston  reached  out  farther  and  farther  for  water. 
First,  Cochituate  Lake  near  the  city  was  made  into  a  reservoir.  Then  res- 
ervoirs to  store  the  waters  of  the  Mystic  River  and  the  Sudbury  Rivers 
were  built.  By  about  1900  it  became  apparent  that  these  reservoirs  would  be 
insufficient;  so  the  city  of  Boston  went  out  35  miles,  into  the  valley  of  the 
Nashua  River  near  Clinton,  Mass.,  and  bought  thousands  of  acres  of  land. 

Then  occurred  an  interesting  engineering  feat,  which  is  important  as 
an  illustration  of  what  great  cities  have  to  do  to  get  water  for  their  people. 
They  moved  a  whole  town!  On  the  land  that  Boston  desired  for  its  new 
reservoir  there  was  a  prosperous  farming  community,  called  West  Boylston. 
The  city's  commission  had  the  farms  of  this  community  condemned  by  an 
ancient  rule  of  law,  which  says  that  any  propert^^  can  be  taken  for  public 
use  provided  the  owners  are  paid  its  value.  So  Boston  bought  these  farms 
and  buildings  from  the  people  who  made  up  West  Boylston.  Even  a  rail- 
road had  to  be  moved, — The  Massachusetts  Central  Railroad,  which  fol- 
lowed the  river  up  through  the  valley. 

Then  began  the  work  of  building  an  enormous  reservoir.  A  great 
dam,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  two  hundred  feet  thick,  and  over  one  hun- 
dred feet  high  was  built  across  the  valley.  The  railroad  company  then  pro- 
ceeded to  bore  a  tunnel  twelve  hundred  feet  long  through  one  of  the  hills; 
and  built  a  bridge  just  below  the  dam  so  that  now  trains  go  straight  across 
the  valley  where  once  they  wound  around  it  to  Worcester. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  river  backed  up  for  several  miles  behind 
the  dam,  and  the  great  Wachusett  Reservoir — for  that  w^as  the  name  they 
gave  it — was  ready  to  supply  Boston  with  water.  It  is  thirty-nine  miles  in 
circumference. 

Even  then,  however,  tunnels  and  channels  of  pure  white  sand  had  to  be 
built  from  Clinton  to  Boston — thirty-five  miles.  The  first  three  miles  of 
this  tunnel  went  through  great  hills;  part  of  the  way  they  had  to  bore 
through  solid  rock.  This  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  expense  and  labor 
that  human  beings  are  willing  to  go  to  in  order  to  continue  to  live  in  cities. 

TAKE  AN  EXCURSION  TO  THE  WATER  WORKS 
OF  YOUR  TOWN 

You  will  understand  best  how  a  community  provides  itself  with  water 
if  you  will  take  an  excursion  to  the  water  plant  of  your  own  city.  Before 
going,  you  should  have  clearly  in  mind  what  it  is  you  are  going  to  study.  Re- 
member that  you  want  to  find  out  the  answers  to  such  questions  as  these : 

1.  Where  does  our  water  come  from,  deep  wells?  the  river?  lakes, 
ponds  nearby?  or  storage  reservoirs  in  the  hills? 

2.  If  it  has  to  be  pumped,  how  do  the  engines  and  pumps  work? 


HOW  THE  CITY  GETS  ITS  WATER 


97 


3.  Where  is  the  water  stored  ?  Is  it  pumped  directly  into  the  mains  of 
the  city  or  does  it  go  into  small  reservoirs  ?  What  are  they  made  of  ?  How 
long  will  the  supply  that  they  hold  last  ? 

4.  How  is  the  water  made  pure  for  drinking  ?  Do  they  let  it  run  over 
white  sand  ?  How  does  the  sand  clean  it  ?  Do  they  put  any  chemicals  in  the 
water,  like  alum  ?   What  for  ? 

The  day  following  your  excursion  the  teacher  will  let  you  discuss  what  you 
saw.  Be  ready  to  tell  how  your  community  gets  its  water  and  how  it 
makes  sure  that  it  is  pure  enough  to  drink. 

To  the  Teacher:  The  Outlook,  vol.  123,  page  182  has 
an  excellent  article  on  the  New  York  City  water  supply. 
See  also  Judd,  C.  H.  and  Marshall,  L.  C.  Lessons  in  Com- 
munity and  National  Life,  Series  C.,  "The  Water  Supply 
of  a  Town  or  City,"  page  25. 


VIII.    HOW  THE  CITY  GETS  ITS  FOOD 


EXERCISE 

A.     WHERE  IS  WHEAT  RAISED  AND  FLOUR  MILLED? 

1.  On  a  blank  map  of  the  United  States  fill  in  with  diagonal  lines  the 
regions  of  the  country  where  Avheat  is  raised.  You  will  be  able  to  get  the 
information  you  need  for  this  purpose  either  from  maps  in  your  geography 
of  from  facts  given  in  the  reading  matter.  Fig.  1,  page  5  of  Part  II,  will 
also  help  you. 

2.  After  you  have  done  this,  locate  the  flour-milling  industries  on  the 
same  map  by  filling  the  regions  in  with  solid  black. 

3.  Now  write  a  few  sentences  in  your  notebook,  perhaps  five  or  six, 
telling  where  wheat  is  raised,  where  flour  is  milled,  and  how  nearly  the 
regions  in  which  these  two  regions  are  located  correspond.  Are  they  the 
same  regions  ?  Are  they  all  different  ?  Or  are  they  the  same  in  some  cases  ? 
Tell  also,  as  you  did  in  the  section  on  iron,  the  reasons  that  they  are  located 
where  they  are. 


B.     WHERE  ARE  CATTLE  RAISED  AND  MEAT  PACKED  t 

1.  Following  the  directions  for  wheat  and  flour  industries,  make  a 
similar  map  showing  where  in  the  United  States  cattle  are  raised  and  where 
meat  is  packed. 

2.  Compare  the  two  regions  and  w^ite  five  sentences  in  your  notebook 
answering  the  questions  for  cattle  and  meat-packing  than  you  answered 
about  wheat-raising  and  flour-milling. 


C.     THE  STORY  OF  WHEAT. 

1.  Collect  all  the  pictures  you  can  on  the  wheat-raising  and  flour- 
you  can  piece  out  the  whole  story  of  wheat  from  the  time  it  is  planted  in  the 

milling  industries  from  geographies,  magazines,  picture  books,  advertise- 
ments, etc.  Bring  them  to  the  class,  and  with  your  class-mates  see  if  together 
ground  until  it  is  made  into  flour  and  purchased  at  the  grocery  store. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  machines,  including  farm  machines  and  trans- 
portation vehicles,  and  all  the  kinds  of  workers  that  are  brought  into  this 
long  process. 


HOW  THE  CITY  GETS  ITS  FOOD 


99 


D.     THE  STORY  OF  CATTLE. 

1/  In  the  same  way  that  you  made  a  picture  story  of  wheat,  make  one 
for  cattle  and  meat-packing. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  machines  and  all  the  kinds  of  workers  that 
enter  into  the  process  of  the  cattle  industry  from  the  time  that  cattle  leave 
the  farm  until  they  get  to  the  meat  market  for  retail  selling. 


To  the  Teacher:  We  suggest  next  a  list  of  books 
suitable  for  the  reading  of  junior  high  school  pupils. 
From  these  additional  readings  on  Ho^  The  City  Gets  Its 
Food  can  be  assigned  as  supplementary  readings. 

Allen,  Nellie  B.:  United  States.  Ginn  and  Co.,  New 
York  1910.    Chapters  7,  8,  and  9. 

Bengston,  N.  A.  and  Griffith,  Done:  The  Wheat  In- 
dustry. The  MacMillan  Company,  New  York,  1915. 
Chapter  3-10. 

Carpenter,  Frank  G.:  //oit'  the  World  Is  Fed.  Ameri- 
can Book  Company,  New  York,  1907.  Chapter  2-5,  9-11, 
24-26,  29,  35,  36,  40,  41,  45,  and  46. 

Chamberlain,  James  F. :  Ho^u  We  Are  Fed.  The  Mac- 
Millan Company,  New  York,  1917.  Pages  7-40,  77-87,  104- 
113,  146-165. 

Chase,  A.  and  Clow,  E. :  Stories  of  Industry.  Educational 
Publishing  Company,  Boston,  1916.  Vol.  II.,  pages  115-149. 
199-223. 

Crissey,  Forest:  The  Story  of  Foods.  Rand,  McNally 
and  Company,  Chicago,  1917.  Entire  book,  particularly 
chapters  1,  2,  3,  31,  and  32. 

Fisher,  Elizabeth  F. :  Resources  and  Industries  of  the 
United  States.  Ginn  and  Company,  New  York,  1919. 
Chapter  3. 

Lane,  M.  A.  L. :  Industries  of  Today.  Ginn  and  Com- 
pany, New  York,  1904,  pages  119-127. 

Mowry,  W.  A.  and  Mowry,  A.  M. :  American  Inven- 
tions and  Investors.  Silver,  Burdett  and  Company,  New 
York,  1900,  pages  99-142. 

Smith,  J.  Russell :  The  World's  Food  Resources.  Henry 
Holt  and  Company,  New  York,  1919.  Chapters  1,  2,  3,  6, 
8,  15,  16,  21,  22,  23,  and  25. 


IX.    A  PICTURE  STORY  OF  COTTON. 


You  have  studied  now  the  important  facts  about  the  resources  and 
industries  upon  which  our  daily  lives  depend  most  closely.  There  is  still 
another  industry  that  occupies  the  time  of  many  people  in  America— one 
however  that  does  not  touch  our  lives  as  immediately  and  vitally  as  coal 
and  transportation.  Even  if  the  cloth  mills  should  shut  down  we  would 
change  our  ways  of  living  not  at  all,  at  least  for  many  months.  Not  for  a 
considerable  time  would  we  really  feel  the  pinch  of  lack  of  cotton. 

The  cotton  industry  is  most  interesting  to  study.  We  have  chosen  it  as 
another  one  with  which  to  give  you  a  picture  story.  Your  teacher  wants 
to  find  out  how  much  you  can  learn  about  the  whole  process  of  cloth  making 
from  a  series  of  pictures.  Study  the  next  pictures  and  read  the  story  as  told 
blew  them  straight  through.  Then  see  if  you  can  tell  the  class  how  the  cotton 
blossom  becomes  the  cotton  cloth  from  which  your  dress  or  shirt  is  made. 


Fig.  521 


No.  1.  This  is  the  first  step  in  making  your  cotton  skirt  or  dress, 
picking  the  cotton  blossom  from  the  plant.  Each  plant  contains  several 
blossoms  or  "balls,"  and  until  very  recently  they  have  had  to  be  picked  by 
hand.  A  very  skillful  picker  can  pick  only  about  150  pounds  a  day. 
Most  pickers  pick  about  70  pounds  a  day.  This  work  of  picking 
has  been  one  of  the  few  things  in  industry  that  could  not  be  done  by 
machinery.    It  has  retarded  cotton  production  a  great  deal. 

i^From  "Fabrics  of  Civilization,"  courtesy  of  the  Guaranty  Trust 
Co.,  New  York  City. 


A  PICTURE  STORY  OF  COTTON  101 


Courtesy  of  the  Industrial  Digest,  March  18,  1922. 
Fig.  53. 

No.  2.  After  a  hundred  years  of  inventing  a  mechanical  picker 
has  been  made.  The  picture  shows  an  electrical  device  which  permits 
a  person  to  gather  from  400  to  700  pounds  of  cotton  a  day,  as  compared 
with  70  to  150  pounds,  by  hand.  By  so  doing  it  promises  to  solve  the 
greatest  problem  of  the  cotton  grower,  that  of  being  able  to  harvest 
all  his  cotton  in  the  fall  before  the  rains  and  frosts  damage  the  plants. 
The  cotton  thus  picked  is  declared  to  be  cleaner  and  fluffier,  and  worth 
$15  more  a  bale  than  the  hand  picked. 

This  one  machine  increases  cotton  production  at  least  5  times. 


Fig.  54\ 


No.  3.  When  the  cotton  is  picked  is  it  ready  for  spinning?  No,  far 
from  it.  One  of  the  most  important  things  that  has  to  be  done  to  it  is  the 
cleaning  out  of  the  seeds.  Until  1792  that  had  to  be  done  by  hand  and 
was  very  slow  and  expensive  work.  In  1792  Eli  Whitney,  a  young  New 
England  school  teacher,  invented  the  machine  shown  above,  called  a 
"cotton  gin."  With  this  little  hand  machine  a  man  cleaned  several  times 
as  much  cotton  per  day  as  by  hand.  In  the  century  since  Whitney's  day 
many  improvements  in  ginning  have  come.  Nowadays  the  cotton  is 
driven  from  the  field  to  a  large  gin  house.  The  raw  seed  cotton  is  sucked 
from  the  wagons  by  air  pressure  and  blown  through  cleaning  frames 
which  removes  the  seed.  These  are  blown  into  wagons  and  hauled  away. 
The  clean  lint  is  blown  into  baling  presses. 


1  Guaranty  Trust  Co. :  Ibid. 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRY 


Fig.  551 

No.  4.  It  comes  out  of  the  gin  house  baled  loosely  as  the  large 
bale  at  the  left  shows.  It  goes  under  great  hydraulic  presses  and  is 
compressed  to  a  size  as  shown  in  the  bale  at  the  right— smaller  m  size 
but  weighing  the  same,  500  lbs.  ,   ,     ,  r  ,u 

Pictures  No.  1  to  4  complete  the  story  of  the  handling  of  the  raw 
cotton.  Once  it  is  baled  it  is  ready  to  be  shipped  to  cotton  mills  where 
it  is  spun  into  yarn  and  woven  into  cloth. 


A  PICTURE  STORY  OF  COTTON 


No.  5.  The  map  shows  where  our  textile  mills  (cotton,  woolen  and 
silk)  are.  Some  are  right  near  the  southern  cotton  fields,  in  Georgia, 
and  North  and  South  Carolina,  The  oldest  and  largest  are  in  New  Eng- 
land— Massachusetts  especially.  For  a  hundred  years  cotton  manufactur- 
ing has  been  a  special  industry  of  New  England;  only  in  the  last  twenty 
years  has  much  cotton  manufacturing  been  done  in  the  south. 

Do  you  see  how  close  the  new  Georgia  and  Carolina  mills  are  to 
the  cotton  district?  Compare  this  map  with  Fig.  14,  Part  II,  page  31. 
Isn't  it  astonishing  that  they  did  not  build  mills  there  long  ago?  The 
reason  is  that  they  could  not  obtain  enough  skilled  laborers. 


Fig.  571 


No.  6.  In  the  mill  the  raw  cotton  goes  through  five  different 
processes : 

1.  Preparatory  processes:  Opening,  carding,  combing,  and  draw- 
ing. 2.  Spinning.  3.  Spooling,  warping,  sizing,  slashing,  entering 
or  drawing-in.  4.  Weaving.  5.  Converting  and  finishing,  including 
bleaching,  mercerizing,  dying,  and  finishing. 

This  machine  (No.  6)  is  an  opener  picker.  It  cleans  the  cotton 
of  dirt  and  rolls  it  with  a  fairly  regular  lap.  Notice  the  rolls  on  the 
platform  at  the  back  of  the  machine.  Over  these  the  irregular  downy 
mass  of  cotton  as  it  comes  in  the  bale  is  smoothed  and  drawn  out  into  a 
flat  lap. 

The  carding  machine  (not  shown  here)  draws  out  the  cotton  still 
more,  lays  the  fibres  parallel  and  discards  the  short  immature  fibres.  As 
the  flat  lap  leaves  the  carding  machine  it  is  compressed  by  funnels  into 
rope-like  "slivers." 


1  Guaranty  Trust  Co. :  Ibid. 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRY 


Fig.  581 


No.  7.  This  shows  "slivers"  of  cotton  (they  look  like  ropes  now 
don't  they?)  running  out  of  cans  onto  drawing  machines.  The  slivers 
are  as  thick  as  a  man's  thumb  as  they  start  through  the  frames  but  grad- 
ually they  lengthen  out  and  get  finer  and  finer  as  the  drawing  frames 
twist  them  onto  spindles.  Do  you  see  the  spindles  on  top  of  the  frames. 
Spinning  yarn  (or  thread)  is  a  process  of  twisting  and  compressing 
and  lengthening  the  cotton  fibres.  It  is  the  twisting  that  reduces  the 
fluffy  roving  to  tougher,  stronger  and  finer  thread. 


Fig.  59- 


No  8  This  shows  the  spindles  on  larger  frames  receiving  more 
twisting  and  drawing  out.  Do  you  notice  in  all  this  work  how  most  of 
it  is  done  by  machinery?  How  few  persons  are  required  to  tend  the 
machines.  This  is  one  of  the  marvellous  developments  of  the  last  hun- 
dred years— in  all  branches  of  industry  more  and  more  of  the  worlds 
heavy  labor  is  done  by  machine  power. 


1,  «,  Guaranty  Trust  Co.:  Ibid. 


A  PICTURE  STORY  OF  COTTON 


Fig.  60^ 

No.  9.  Once  the  cotton  has  been  twisted  to  fine  thread  it  has  to  be 
made  ready  to  be  put  into  a  loom  to  be  woven  into  cloth.  First  the 
yarn  on  the  thin  spindles  has  to  be  wound  onto  larger  spools  as  shown 
here.   These  are  then  set  in  a  tall  frame  called  a  creel. 


Fig.  612 

No.  10.  From  the  creel,  shown  at  the  back  of  this  picture,  the 
threads  are  drawn  onto  a  large  roller  and  laid  in  exact  order  side  by 
side,  a  yard  or  more  in  width.  The  number  of  threads  depends  on  the 
width  that  the  store  people  want  their  cloth  to  be.  Some  cotton  cloth 
sells  in  yard  width,  some  27  inches  wide,  others  at  other  widths.  If  you 
can  get  a  magnifying  glass  study  how  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  is  com- 
posed. It  consists  of  threads  woven  over  and  under  each  other  and 
at  right  angles  to  each  other.  One  set  of  threads  consists  of  the  warp, 
which  is  the  set  shown  in  the  machine  in  this  picture.  No.  9. 


1,  2,  Guarantj^  Trust  Co.:  Ibid. 


106 


RESOURCES    AND  INDUSTRY 


Fig.  621 

No  11  The  last  step  in  making  threads  into  cloth  is  the  weaving. 
It  is  done  on  a  loom  like  this  one.  The  large  roller  (the  beam)  on  which 
the  threads  are  shown  in  No.  10,  is  put  underneath  and  the  threads  run 
through  five  wires  which  separate  them  regularly.  These  threads  are 
raised  and  lowered  alternately  so  that  a  shuttle  can  be  driven  between 
them  by  the  power  that  runs  the  loom.  Before  1738,  when  Kay  invented 
the  "flying-shuttle,"  the  shuttle  containing  the  bobbin  of  thread  had 
to  be  thrown  through  by  hand.  This  was  very  wasteful.  During  the 
past  two  centuries  many  inventions  have  been  made  so  that  now  one 
weaver  can  operate  16  looms  at  once. 


Once  the  cloth  is  woven  it  has  to  be  "finished,"  and  made  ready  for 
selling.  This  means  that  it  has  to  be  washed  and  bleeched,  pressed  to  a 
fine  surface,  sometimes  mercerized,  dyed,  printed  etc. 


EXERCISE 

We  have  given  you  a  picture  story  of  one  of  the  important  American  in- 
dustries, the  cotton  industry. 

See  if  you  can  find  out  the  chief  facts  about  this  industry,  answering  such 

questions  as  these : 

1.  Where  are  the  textile  factories  of  America? 

2.  Why  are  they  where  they  are  ? 

'  3.    How  many  people  are  there  engaged  in  the  textile  industry? 

4.  Do  we  export  raw  cotton,  wool  and  silk? 

5.  Do  we  export  cotton,  woolen,  and  silk  cloth?  To  whom?  How 
much  ? 

6.  How  important  an  industry  is  the  textile  industry  in  the  lives  of 
our  people?  If  it  should  break  down  would  it  be  as  serious  as  if  the  rail- 
roads should  break  down?    How  serious  would  it  be? 

Guaranty  Trust  Co.:  Ibid. 


X.    FROM  A  STUDY  OF  TOWNS  AND  CITIES  TO  A  STUDY 

OF  NATIONS 


So  far  in  this  pamphlet  you  have  been  studying  about  life  in  our  towns 
and  cities.  Do  you  see  how  comphcated  it  has  become,  how  industries  depend 
upon  other  industries,  and  workers  depend  upon  other  workers,  and  cities 
depend  upon  farms  and  farms  upon  cities  ?  Is  it  clear  to  you  that  the  trans- 
portation industry  has  become  so  important  that  almost  everything  we  do, 
our  school,  our  work,  and  our  play  has  something  about  it  that  transporta- 
tion had  something  to  do  with  ?  In  the  food  you  eat,  the  clothes  you  wear, 
the  theatres  you  go  to,  your  playgrounds,  in  almost  everything  you  can  think 
of,  transportation  has  had  some  part.  It  has  brought  fruit  from  Florida, 
or  cotton  from  Georgia,  or  wood  from  the  forests,  or  films  from  California, 
to  you  wherever  you  are.  If  you  live  in  the  city,  the  wheat  that  goes  into 
your  bread,  and  the  cattle  that  makes  your  meat,  have  come  by  train  from 
the  farm;  if  you  live  in  the  country,  the  cloth  for  your  clothes,  your  shoes, 
your  hats,  your  gloves  have  come  by  train  from  the  city. 

Transportation  in  turn  depends  upon  coal  and  iron,  and  you  have 
learned  how  important  coal  and  iron  are  to  other  industries  as  well.  We 
make  our  machines  of  iron  and  run  them  by  steam-power  from  coal.  All 
our  factories  depend  upon  a  continuous  supply  of  iron  and  coal.  You 
know  where  the  iron  and  coal  mines  are  and  where  the  steel  mills  are,  and 
you  have  seen  that  our  supply  of  coal  is  decreasing  so  rapidly  that  a  hundred 
years  from  now  engines  and  boilers  and  furnaces  will  have  to  rely  on  some 
other  kind  of  fuel  which  we  don't  know  about  as  yet.  You  have  found  out 
how  a  plentiful  supply  of  pure  water,  above  all  things,  is  absolutely  essential 
to  our  daily  life,  and  how  millions  of  dollars  and  years  of  labor  have  been 
spent  to  make  our  water  supply  the  best  possible. 

Now,  is  it  clear  to  you  how  our  life  and  happiness  and  comfort  is  all 
tied  up  with  huge  industries  which  we  have  always  taken  for  granted. 
Probably  none  of  you  realized  before  how  terrible  it  would  be  if  transpor- 
tation all  over  the  country  should  suddenly  stop,  or  if  all  at  once  there  was 
no  more  coal  or  iron  in  the  mines.  Think  of  it!  What  would  we  do  with- 
out any  one  of  these  things.  And  yet  people  didn't  used  to  be  so  dependent 
on  them.  When  our  country  was  first  settled,  and  even  as  late  as  1800 
there  were  no  railroads,  no  trolley  cars,  no  telephones,  no  huge  reservoirs; 
people  didn't  use  iron  much  in  those  days.  If  you  were  asked  to,  could  you 
trace  by  a  few  steps  how  all  this  complication  came  about  ?  Could  you  tell 
how  people  at  first  made  everything  they  used  in  their  homes,  and  how  from 
that  self-sufficiency,  they  have  come  to  make  almost  nothing  in  their  homes  ? 

i 


108 


RESOURCES    AND  INDUSTRY 


EXERCISE 

Go  back  to  Section  II,  From  Home  to  Factory,  pages  8-18,  and  for  each 
story  write  a  sentence  in  your  notebook  giving  the  main  idea  that  you  got 
from  it.  Follow  each  one  with  one  or  two  other  sentences  that  you  can  now 
write  on  the  subject  after  studying  the  rest  of  the  pamphlet  or  from  your 
general  knowledge.  For  each  story,  then,  there  should  be  either  two  or 
three  sentences.  Write  this  summary  so  that  if  a  stranger  were  to  read  it  he 
would  see  clearly  how  the  change  came  about  in  going  from  a  simple  to  a 
complicated  life. 


Now  from  a  study  of  cities  we  are  going  to  a  study  of  nations.  See 
if  you  do  not  agree  that  a  nation  is  just  a  very  large  community,  and  that  as  a 
whole  it  depends  upon  much  the  same  things  that  a  city  or  town  or  still 
smaller  community  depends  upon.  Remember  that  the  parts  of  a  nation  or 
of  most  nations,  are  tied  together  by  railroads,  by  telephones,  by  telegraphs, 
by  lakes  and  rivers.  If  they  are  separated  from  each  other,  by  oceans,  in 
the  same  way  cities  are  separated  from  each  other  by  rivers  or  lakes;  never- 
theless such  cities  depend  upon  each  other.  Should  nations  depend  upon 
each  other,  or  should  they  try  to  live  separately.  Decide  this  if  you  can  as 
you  study  Part  II. 


PART  II. 

CAN  A  NATION  LIVE  BY  ITSELF? 


I.    WHAT  WOULD  HAPPEN  TO  AMERICA  IF  SHE  COULD 
NOT  TRADE  WITH  OTHER  COUNTRIES? 

What  do  you  think  would  happen  if  the  people  of  the  United  States 
should  wake  up  some  morning  and  find  such  newspaper  headlines  as  these 
staring  them  in  the  face? 

England,  France,  Germany 

and  Japan  Refuse  to  Trade 
With  the  United  States 


NO  PRODUCTS  OF  OTHER  COUNTRIES  COMING  TO 
AMERICAN  PORTS 


History  has  repeated  itself.  What  hap- 
pened to  the  American  people  in  1807  has 
happened  again — no  foreign  goods  are 
coming  to  American  ports.  For  the  first 
time  in  one  hundred  years  we  are  cut 
off  from  other  countries.  Neither  our 
ships  nor  those  sailing  under  foreign 
flags  will  bring  us  the  products  of  other 
lands.  The  United  States  must  depend 
upon  herself,  at  least  for  a  while, — no 
one  can  predict  for  how  long.  The 
President  has  called  special  meetings  of 
his  Cabinet.  Business  and  labor  leaders 
are  hurrying  to  Washington  to  take  stock 
of  the  resources  of  the  nation  and  to  find 
out  the  best  way  of  handling  them. 

Can  the  American  people  exist  with- 


out supplies  from  other  nations?  That  is 
the  question  now  facing  the  United  States. 
Can  we  raise  enough  wheat,  corn,  and 
cattle  to  meet  our  needs?  Can  flour  be 
made  to  feed  100  million  people?  Can 
meat  be  packed  and  distributed  to  all 
parts  of  the  country?  Have  we  enough 
fuel  in  our  mines  and  forests  to  keep  our 
railroads  going  and  our  mills  running? 
Can  our  iron  mines  and  steel  mills  con- 
tinue to  operate,  or  must  they  cut  down 
to  part  time?  Will  building  slow  up,  and 
cotton  and  woollen  manufacturing  plants 
close  their  doors?  Will  millions  of  our 
men  and  women  workers  be  thrown  out  of 
employment?  These  are  questions  that  the 
American  people  are  now  forced  to 
answer. 


CAN  NATIONS  EXIST  INDEPENDENTLY  OF  EACH  OTHER  .^^ 
CAN  THE  UNITED  STATES? 

Of  course  the  newspaper  clipping  is  imaginary,  and  to  us  in  America 
it  does  not  seem  possible  that  other  nations  would  ever  combine  against  us 
and  refuse  to  trade  with  our  country.  But  suppose  that  they  did.  They 
have  refused  to  trade  with  Russia  ever  since  1918.  If  they  refuse  to  trade 
with  one  country,  is  it  not  possible  that  they  might  refuse  to  trade  with 
another?  What  if  they  combined  against  England?  What  would  she  do 
if  no  ships  could  reach  her  ports?  Could  the  little  Island  produce  enough 
wheat  and  corn  and  cattle  and  sheep  for  the  needs  of  her  people?  Could 


2 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


she  get  enough  coal  from  her  mines  for  fuel?  Could  she  raise  enough  cotton 
to  keep  her  factories  going  if  no  ships  were  bringing  supplies  from  other 
nations?  What  has  life  in  Russia  been  like  since  1918?  Have  her  people 
had  all  they  needed  to  eat  and  to  wear  and  to  keep  them  warm  since  other 
countries  stopped  trading  with  her?  No,  Russia  is  starving,  and  thousands 
of  her  people  are  dying  from  lack  of  food  and  insufficient  clothing.  Let  us 
think  about  what  would  happen  to  us  if  the  United  States  had  to  depend  upon 
herself  alone  for  all  that  she  needed. 

Would  we  starve?  Would  we,  Hke  the  Russians,  die  in  thousands? 
Would  our  children  drop  onto  their  cots  in  hunger  and  weakness,  and  lie 
there  until  they  died  as  the  Russian  children  are  doing?  Every  few  years 
we  read  of  great  famines  in  other  countries,  in  India  and  China,  and  of 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  dying  of  starvation.  Could  a  refusal  of 
other  nations  to  trade  with  us  bring  about  such  a  situation  in  the  United 
States?  With  our  vast  stretch  of  territory,  our  temperate  climate,  and  our 
great  transportation  facilities,  could  there  be  a  famine  that  would  result  in 
the  death  of  such  multitudes?  (What  would  transportation  facilities  have 
to  do  with  it?)  No,  that  is  unthinkable  for  our  country.  But  if ,  without  a 
famine,  all  the  other  countries  refused  to  trade  with  us,  could  we  live  on  what 
we  could  produce?  Or,  would  New  York  and  Chicago  and  Detroit  find 
themselves  in  the  condition  that  Vienna,  the  capital  of  Austria,  is  in  now? 
Here  is  what  an  American  visitor  wrote  back  from  there  not  long  ago : 

"In  Vienna  soap  is  more  precious  than  gold,  and  as  for  food  there  is 
so  little  that  children  die  daily  of  starvation  and  of  tuberculosis  .  .  .  Now 
there  is  no  gaiety,  and  the  women,  who  were  brought  up  to  avoid  work,  must 
struggle  to  make  both  ends  meet." 

The  American  visitor  took  a  Viennese  woman  out  to  lunch,  and  this  is 
what  she  said  of  her  and  her  family. 

"She  ate  ravenously.  I  took  her  to  the  best  hotel.  There  for  enormous 
prices  one  could  get  a  real  meal.  When  she  had  finished  she  looked  at  my 
plate :    'May  I  take  what  is  left  ?'  she  said. 

"She  took  out  the  daintiest  of  pocket-handkerchiefs.  She  brushed  the 
remnants  into  it ;  then  she  put  it  into  the  silk-lined  bag.  Without  a  quiver, 
quite  simply,  she  said :  1  no  longer  have  any  pride.  We  are  starving.  My 
family  will  envy  me  because  I  have  had  meat.  It  is  long  since  we  have  had 
any.  .  .  . 

"Miss  von  Pott's  uncle  had  been  an  Austrian  Ambassador.  The  family 
still  wore  beautiful  clothes;  they  still  lived  with  quaint  formality.  But  their 
only  food  was  the  regulation  ration.  It  was  not  enough  and  they  could  buy 
no  more.  The  pension  allowed  diplomats  was  that  paid  under  the  old  regime. 
With  the  [drop  in  the  value  of  money]  this  pittance  was  not  enough  even  for 
rent.    They  were  slowly  being  squeezed  to  death. 


CAN  THE  UNITED  STATES  LIVE  BY  ITSELF 


3 


"There  was  a  diplomats'  kitchen  for  destitute  diplomats.  Here  the 
starving  aristocracy  could  eat.  They  sat  next  to  their  former  servants  and 
consumed  cabbage  soup.  The  von  Pott  family  ate  at  the  kitchen.  But  cab- 
bage soup  is  not  very  nourishing.  Miss  von  Pott's  mother  was  dying.  She 
had  lost  forty  pounds.  I  had  a  few  cans  of  sardines  and  a  little  sweet  choco- 
late brought  from  Switzerland.  These  I  gave  Miss  Pott  for  her  mother. 
She  was  very  grateful.  When  she  found  I  wanted  to  study  starvation  in 
Austria,  she  said,  'Let  me  take  you  about.' 

"Each  day  we  lunched  together.  Each  day  she  took  the  scraps  left 
back  home."  ^ 


Could  a  trade  embargo  bring  the  United  States  to  such  a  pass?  Let 
us  think  about  what  our  daily  lives  absolutely  depend  upon,  and  see  whether  it 
is  possible  for  us  to  produce  these  necessary  things  in  large  enough  quantities 
within  our  own  boundaries  to  supply  all  our  people. 

Make  a  list  in  your  notebook  of  the  kinds  of  food  you  must  have  regu- 
larly every  day  in  order  to  live.  Make  sure  that  you  do  not  include  things 
that  are  not  absolutely  necessary. 

In  another  column  list  the  materials  that  would  be  needed  to  make 
clothing  that  you  would  have  to  have.  Ask  yourself  whether  each  of  these 
items  is  something  you  couldn't  get  along  without. 

Make  a  third  list  of  the  materials  you  can  think  of  that  are  necessary 
for  building  houses. 

To  the  Teacher:  At  this  point  develop  from  the  sug- 
gestions of  the  pupils,  first,  a  complete  blackboard  list  of 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter  items  that  are  necessities ; 
second,  make  a  list  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  items 
that  would  be  regarded  not  as  necessities,  but  as  articles 
of  comfort;  and  third,  make  a  list  of  the  items  that  are 
luxuries  which  the  masses  of  our  people  do  not  enjoy  and 
which  we  could  get  along  without.  The  purpose  of  this 
exercise  is  to  have  the  pupils  separate  in  their  minds  the 
necessities  of  life  from  articles  of  comfort  and  luxuries. 

Now  make  three  more  lists  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  items  that 
would  not  be  necessary  in  order  that  you  could  live,  but  that  are  necessary 
to  a  comfortable  living.  After  you  have  done  that,  make  three  lists  of  lux- 
uries that  are  neither  necessary  to  comfort  nor  enjoyed  by  the  masses  of  our 
people. 


WHAT  KINDS  OF  WORK  DO  PEOPLE  DO  IN  CITIES? 

From  where  does  all  this  food  come  that  one  hundred  million  Americans 
must  have  in  order  to  live?  Does  each  family  raise  corn  and  wheat  and 
potatoes  in  its  own  garden  patch  ?    Does  each  family  keep  a  cow  from  which 


1  From  Literary  Digest,  1922. 


4 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


it  gets  its  fresh  milk  every  day,  and  are  the  vegetables  for  the  table  grown  in 
the  back-yard  of  each  home?  Does  each  household  fatten  hogs,  raise  cattle, 
and  prepare  its  own  meat  ? 

No,  not  in  1922,  for  half  of  the  people  of  our  country  live  in  cities  and 
don't  even  have  back-yards  or  front-yards,  or  any  place  at  all  for  gardens  or 
for  animals.  Many  thousands  of  our  people  live  in  apartments,  tenements, 
or  small  frame  houses  built  on  small  plots  of  ground  25  to  40  feet  wide 
and  50  to  100  feet  deep,  fronting  close  to  narrow  paved  streets.  At  least 
half  of  the  children  of  America  never  saw  a  plow,  or  a  reaper,  or  a  young 
pig;  they  never  saw  a  cow  milked.  Their  milk  comes  to  them  in  sanitary 
bottles  purchased  at  a  corner  grocery  store,  or  delivered  by  a  dairy  wagon ; 
they  get  their  bacon  all  nicely  sliced  and  packed  in  labeled  cardboard  boxes, 
or  it  is  sliced  at  the  neighborhood  butcher's  while  they  wait.  Bread— Ward's 
Schultz's,  Cushman's,  or  whose  not— comes  nicely  wrapped,  of  a  certain 
weight,  and  guaranteed  as  to  quality  and  cleanness ;  fruit  from  a  thousand 
or  two  thousand  miles  away  is  sold  from  a  vendor's  wagon  or  at  the  corner 
fruit  store.  Coffee  from  half  way  round  the  world  can  be  purchased  from 
the  A.  &  P.  man,  and  he  will  grind  it  at  a  moment's  notice.  So  it  goes.  In 
such  ways  as  these  we  in  America  today  can  get  all  our  foods.  Each  person 
does  not  need  to  raise  them  or  prepare  them  for  himself ;  he  can  buy  them 
from  somebody  else. 

But  was  this  always  possible?  No,  not  at  all  in  pioneer  days.  In 
Western  Massachusetts  in  1700  there  were  no  milk  deliveries  or  corner 
groceries;  in  western  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  in  1775  there  was  no 
bacon  to  be  bought  in  neat  boxes  or  bread  to  be  purchased  at  five  cents  a 
loaf,  nor  were  these  things  known  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  states  in  1830- 
1850.  Even  as  late  as  1850-1870  the  people  who  were  settling  the  western 
lands  of  the  Rockies  and  Oregon  and  California  did  not  have  things  done  for 
them  in  such  ways.  They  had  to  do  everything  for  themselves;  they  were 
pioneers  dependent  upon  the  land  for  their  living.  Each  man  with  his  sons 
plowed  his  own  ground  with  hand-plows  and  horses  and  oxen ;  they  sowed 
and  harvested  their  own  wheat  and  corn  (mostly  corn)  ;  and  the  boys  milked 
the  cows  and  tended  the  pigs  and  horses.  The  wife  and  daughters  prepared 
corn  cakes,  mush,  and  hominy,  which  appeared  on  the  table  with  monot- 
onous regularity.  You  see  they  couldn't  begin  to  have  the  variety  in  food 
that  we  have  in  these  days.  Beef  was  a  great  luxury  then—  it  still  is  today 
in  a  few  scattered  places  in  our  wide  land.  Instead  of  being  able  to  step  to 
the  phone  and  ask  the  neighborhood  butcher  to  deliver  two  pounds  of  steak, 
each  farmer— the  people  were  all  farmers  then— had  to  kill  his  own  cow 
and  do  all  the  tilings  that  are  now  done  by  our  meat-packers,  to  get  it  ready  for 
cooking.    And  he  didn't  have  any  fruit  until  he  raised  it  in  his  own  orchard. 

If  things  are  so  different  today  and  people  depend  upon  someone  else  for 
their  food,  what  would  liappcn  if  other  countries  refused  to  trade  with  us? 


CAN  THE  UNITED  STATES  LIVE  BY  ITSELF 


6 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Does  "someone  else"  mean  other  countries?  Or,  does  it  mean  that 
even  though  we  Americans  live  differently  than  our  pioneer  forefathers  did, 
we  divide  labor  and  do  things  for  each  other  so  that  all  our  Wants  can  be 
supplied  from  the  products  of  our  own  country?  In  other  words,  do  we 
mean  by  "someone  else"  the  person  or  persons  who  have  a  large  shoe  factory 
which  makes  thousands  of  pairs  of  shoes  to  be  sold  to  any  who  want  to  buy. 
while  another  person  perhaps  has  a  meat-packing  industry  where  animals 
are  butchered  and  packed,  and  bacon  put  up  in  small  boxes  for  sale?  Do 
we  mean  by  "someone  else"  the  person  who  has  a  large  farm  on  which  he 
raises  immense  quantities  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  while  "someone  else"  has  a 
big  mill  where  the  wheat  is  made  into  flour,  and  so  on?  If  this  is  what  we 
mean  when  we  say  that  all  these  various  things  which  our  forefathers  had 
to  do  for  themselves  are  done  for  us,  we  need  to  find  out  whether  there  are 
enough  people  and  enough  goods  raised  and  manufactured  in  our  own 
country  so  that  we  are  not  dependent  upon  "someone  else"  outside  America. 
If  there  are  enough  people  and  enough  goods,  then  if  our  newspaper  headlines 
told  us  that  the  other  nations  had  refused  to  trade  with  us,  we  would  not 
need  to  be  alarmed. 

Study  the  map  of  Fig.  1.  It  will  help  you  to  answer  the  question, 
Could  the  people  of  the  United  States  live  without  supplies  from  other 
nations. 

Look  back  at  the  first  list  you  made  in  your  notebook.  Did  you  have 
cattle,  hogs,  wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  sugar,  fruit?  If  so,  study 
Fig.  1  and  see  if  we  raise  these  things.  The  fact  that  we  raise  them,  does 
not  mean,  of  course,  that  we  raise  enough.  How  would  one  find  out  about 
the  quantities  we  raise  of  the  different  products?  Are  there  books  or  atlases 
that  one  can  go  to  for  such  information?  Yes,  if  you  should  go  to  the 
librarian  in  your  school  or  town  library  and  ask  her  to  help  you  find  out 
whether  in  this  country  we  raised  enough  of  the  different  products  to  supply 
the  needs  of  our  people,  she  would  send  you  to  books  like  the  following : 

1.  The  World  Almanac  and  Encyclopedia  for  1922, 
published  by  the  New  York  World  Press  Publishing  Co., 
New  York  City.  These  Almanacs,  one  published  for  each 
year,  contain  figures  on  many  things  that  you  will  want  to 
look  up  in  your  studies  at  school  and  oftentimes  at  home. 

2.  The  Daily  News  Ahnanac,  published  by  the 
Chicago  Daily  News,  Chicago,  Illinois.  This  gives  the  same 
kind  of  information. 

3.  Geography  of  the  JVorld's  Agriculture.  By  V.  C. 
Finch  and  O.  E.  Baker,  1917.  This  can  be  secured  from  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington, 
D.  C.  It  gives  hundreds  of  maps  showing  where  things  are 
raised  and  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 


8 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


4.  The  New  World.  By  Isaiah  Bowman.  World 
Book  Company,  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  1921.  This  is  an  authorita- 
tive book  and  contains  a  most  valuable  collection  of  facts 
about  the  resources  of  foreign  countries. 

Here  is  a  series  of  maps  that  w^ill  show  you  where  the  food  of  the 
world  is  raised.  We  shall  study  them  more  carefully  than  now  at  later  times 
during  the  year,  but  we  wish  to  use  them  at  this  point  to  help  answer  our 
question  whether  America  could  get  along  without  trading  with  other 
countries. 

WHERE  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  WORLD  LIVE 

The  first  map.  Fig.  2,  is  given  merely  to  help  you  identify  the  countries 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  for  Canada  and  the  United  States 
it  shows  the  provinces  and  states  also.  You  will  notice  that  on  the  maps  of 
the  o^er  figures  the  names  of  the  countries  are  not  given,  so  whenever  you 
have  any  difficulty  in  telling  what  countries  produce  certain  foods  you  must 
turn  back  to  your  identification  map,  Fig.  2,  and  find  out  their  names. 

The  population  map,  Fig.  3,  shows  where  the  people  of  the  world  are 
living.  What  does  it  mean  when  there  are  a  great  many  dots  close  to- 
gether? What  do  a  few  dots  mean?  The  bar  graphs  below  the  map  give 
you  a  kind  of  summary  of  population  facts;  they  tell  you  about  how  many 
people  are  living  in  the  eight  countries  of  the  world  which  have  the  largest 
population. 

What  other  important  facts  do  you  get  from  the  bar  graphs  of  Fig.  3  ? 

Are  you  surprised  to  find  that  China  and  India  have  so  many  people? 
Together  they  have  about.  .J^:.  .  .  (fill  in)  million  people.  When  the 
map  was  made  in  1917  there  were  about     .  .• '.  .  ,  .  ?  l^A  PT?^  people 

in  the  entire  world.  The  people  of  China  and  Japan  together  comprise 
about.  1 .  per  cent  of  the  whole  world's  population.  The  United  States 
ranks.  .  .  aJ^^V-V  .  .  in  per  cent  of  population.  Its  population  of  about 
100  million  is.  .       .  .  .per  cent  of  the  whole  number  of  people  in  the  w^orld. 

In  what  parts  of  the  world  are  people  living  together  most  closely?  Have 
you  any  idea  why  there  are  almost  no  people  in  north  central  Africa,  in 
central  and  southern  South  America,  all  through  the  northern  part  of  North 
America,  in  central  Australia,  and  throughout  northern  Europe  and  Asia? 
We  will  not  take  the  time  now  to  find  out  all  the  reasons  why,  for  we  are 
coming  back  to  this  very  important  subject  later.  But  can  you  tell  the  class 
one  reason  for  the  lack  of  popuhition  in  these  parts,  before  we  go  on? 

To  the  Teacher:  One  of  our  principles  of  arrange- 
ment of  this  material  is  to  introduce  an  important  matter 
rather  casually  before  taking  it  up  fully.  This  is  an  ex- 
ample of  it.  Do  not  spend  much  time  at  this  point  on  the 
last  question.  We  will  give  more  facts  and  questions  on 
it  later. 


10 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


If  you  were  a  farmer  wanting  to  invest  in  land  where  there  would  be 
the  least  possible  competition  in  selling  your  products,  what  country  would 
you  choose?   Tell  exactly  why. 

The  bar  graphs  below  the  population  map,  Fig.  3,  will  help  you  to 
answer  the  following  questions : 

1.  Which  of  the  eight  countries  listed  have  the  most  people  per  square 
mile?       •  UA^^>-^^    lQC.^^v^-^Y-^Mrw>^  rQ...^-^ 

2.  Which  countries  get  the  largest  crops  from  their  land?  Where  does 
the  United  States  stand  in  this  respect  ? 

3.  Is  this  sentence  true:  The  United  States  has  more  acres  in  crops 
in  proportion  to  its  population  than  any  other  country,  'j' 


WHERE  IS  THE  FOOD  OF  THE  WORLD  RAISED 

Have  you  begun  to  decide  whether  our  country  is  self-sufficient — that 
is,  whether  it  could  exist  without  help  from  any  other  country?  Have  you 
enough  information  yet  to  answer  your  question  ? 

Even 'though  we  have  a  large  territory,  and  sow  millions  of  acres  in 
foodstuffs,  are  we  able  to  provide  the  different  kinds  of  food  our  people  need 
to  live  on  ?  Do  you  know  what  kinds  of  food  are  used  most  by  people  scat- 
tered over  the  earth?  Breadstuffs  are  used  most  generally  by  civilized 
people,  and  breadstuffs  are  made  from  different  kinds  of  grain — ^wheat, 
corn,  rye,  barley,  rice.  Look  back  at  Fig.  1  and  see  how  many  of  these  are 
raised  in  this  country.  Even  if  they  all  are,  what  other  information  do  you 
need  ?  Notice  whether  some  of  these  same  products  are  not  raised  in  Russia 
and  Austria  where  the  people  are  now  starving. 

Let's  see  where  the  wheat  of  the  world  is  raised.  Study  Fig.  4,  the 
wheat  map,  for  wheat  is  the  civilized  world's  most  important  grain. 
How  can  you  tell  from  the  bar  graph  that  it  is  the  most  important  ?  About 
what  per  cent  of  all  their  cropped  land  is  given  over  by  the  various  countries 
to  wheat  ?  '  This  fact  about  our  country  is  changed  from  pioneer  days,  for 
corn  was  then  the  most  important  grain;  corn  is  much  more  easily  prepared 
for  eating  when  you  do  not  have  machines  and  appliances,  than  wheat. 

1.  What  are  the  eight  wheat-producing  countries  today? 

2.  Which  one  has  the  most  acres  in  wheat?  Which  one  raises  the 
largest  total  amount  ? 

Compare  the  two  lists  of  countries  given  in  Fig.  4  very  carefully.  Is 
there  a  single  country  that  appears  in  both  lists?  Can  you  tell  why.  Are 
the  countries  in  the  first  small  or  large?  Are  the  countries  in  the  second  list 
small  or  large. 

Now  study  Fig.  5  which  shows  the  amount  of  wheat  produced  and 
used  by  eighteen  different  countries.    Give  all  the  facts  that  it  tells  you 


CAN  THE  UNITED  STATES  LIVE  BY  ITSELF 


11 


12 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


about  the  linked  States.  Do  these  facts  help  you  to  answer  your  big  ques- 
tion? In  what  way?  Put  a  sentence  in  your  notebook  showing  whether 
as  far  as  wheat  is  concerned  we  are  dependent  upon  other  countries. 

Canada  leads  all  countries  *in  both  production  and  consumption  per 
capita  of  wheat,  with  Argentina  ranking  second,  and  Australia  third  in  pro- 
duction, while  France  stands  third  in  consumption.  The  United  States 
ranks  seventh  in  production  per  capita  and  tenth  in  consumption. 

What  about  com  ?  What  is  the  great  corn-producing  country  of  the 
world  ?  Do  you  think  the  United  States  would  have  to  buy  much  corn  from 
other  countries    See  Fig.  6. 

Without  taking  into  account  our  large  acreage,  do  we  raise  corn  as  well 
as  other  people  do? 


WHEAT 


COUNTRiES 


CANA&A 

AROENTINa 

AUSTRALIA 

ROUMANU 

BULOARtA 

FRANCE 

UNITED  STATES 

NEW  ZEALAiTO 

SPAIN 

URUGUAY 

ALGERIA 

ITALY 

CHILE 

AUSTRIA  -  HUNGARY 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE 
SEHVIA 
TUNIS 

UNITED  KINGDOM 


PRODUCTION  mamm      coNsuMPTiON  y/w/z/'n 

BUSHELS  PER  CAPITA 


Fig.  51 


Considering  our  large  population,  do  we  raise  as  much  corn  to  an  acre 
of  our  land  as  other  countries? 

Now  write  a  sentence  in  your  notebook  telling  whether  we  would  be 
dependent  on  other  nations  as  far  as  corn  is  concerned. 

Fig.  7  shows  where  the  potatoes  of  the  world  are  raised.  Which  are 
the  two  greatest  potato-raising  countries?  Which  ones  get  the  best  yields 
per  acre?  Does  it  look  to  you  as  though  the  United  States  would  have  to 
get  potatoes  from  other  countries?  Put  another  sentence  in  your  notebook — 
about  potatoes. 

1  Finch  &  Hakcr:  ( Jooiiiapliy  of  the  World's  Agriculture.  T.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


CAN  THE  UNITED  STATES  LIVE  BY  ITSELF 


13 


Fig.  61 


RECENTLY  WE  HAVE  SHIPPED  MUCH  FOOD  TO  OTHER  PEOPLE 

What  do  you  think— would  our  people  go  hungry  for  bread  if  we  could 
not  trade  wit'h  other  nations?  Would  they  have  to  make  bread  out  of  pota- 
toes as  the  Germans  did  in  1917  and  1918  when  so  many  millions  of  their 
men  went  to  war  and  the  Allies  formed  a  blockade  all  around  Germany? 
Bread  in  America  is  usually  made  from  wheat,  but  in  times  when  wheat  is 
scarce  and  hard  to  get  bakers  and  housewives  have  to  fall  back  on  other 
cereals.    Then  they  use  corn  and  rye  to  tnake  bread,  and  even  bran  and  rice 


Fig.  71 


1  Finch  &  Baker:  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


14 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


and  potatoes.  In  1917  and  1918  America  was  called  upon  to  help  feed 
England,  France,  and  Italy,  and  to  aid  in  winning  the  war  against  Ger- 
many. With  so  many  of  their  men  taken  from  the  fields  to  fight  in  the  war, 
our  Allies  found  it  impossible  to  raise  enough  breadstuffs  to  feed  their  people, 
so  we  had  to  help  them.  That  we  did  help  them  is  shown  by  Table  I,  which 
gives  the  value  of  foodstufis  we  shipped  to  other  countries  in  each  year  from 
1904  to  1921. 

Table  I. 


Value  of  Foodstuffs 


Exported  by  the 

Year 

United  States 

1904 

$444 

millions 

1905 

401 

1906 

525 

1907 

513 

1908 

522 

(( 

1909 

438 

1910 

369 

<( 

1911 

385 

1912 

419 

1913 

503 

(( 

1914 

431 

(( 

1915 

961 

(( 

1916 

881 

(( 

1917 

1269 

(f 

1918 

1529 

(I 

1919 

2503 

1920 

2141 

(( 

1921 

1795 

(I 

See  how  the  number  of  millions  go  up  in  1918,  1919,  and  1920.  Even 
though  the  war  was  over  in  November  1918,  the  soldiers  of  the  difterent 
countries  of  course  didn't  get  back  to  work  at  once.  It  took  months  for  them 
to  be  discharged  from  service  and  to  get  back  to  plowing  their  fields,  to  sow- 
ing—  and  months  later — harvesting  their  crops,  to  the  factories  where  they 
were  working  when  war  called  them  away.  Once  they  got  their  crops  in, 
their  own  supplies  were  on  the  way,  but  they  had  to  wait  months  for  harvest 
time  when  the  grain  could  be  gathered  and  shipped  to  the  mills  to  be  made  into 
flour  for  bread  and  other  foods.  In  the  meantime,  of  course,  they  had  to 
live,  so  during  1919  someone  had  to  feed  the  people  of  England  and  Europe. 
Who  was  there  to  do  it  but  the  United  States  ?  Who  else  had  great  food 
resources?  No  other  country  had  as  great  supplies.  Do  you  see  how  Table 
I  tells  what  happened?  So  great  was  Europe's  need  even  in  1920  that  our 
people  continued  their  immense  shipments  of  raw  materials  and  manufactured 
foodstuffs  throughout  the  year.  And  in  1921  we  still  continued  to  help 
feed  Europe,  and  even  yet  the  amount  of  foodstuffs  we  send  over  there  has 
not  dropped  back  to  the  totals  of  tliree  to  five  hundred  milHon  dollars  which 
were  normal  in  the  years  1910-1913  just  before  the  war. 


CAN  THE  UNITED  STATES  LIVE  BY  ITSELF 


15 


Does  this  bring  you  nearer  to  your  answer  to  the  question  whether 
America  could  raise  enough  food  to  feed  her  people  should  other  nations 
refuse  to  trade  with  her  ?  Of  course  you  can  not  yet  answer  the  question  fully 
because  you  do  not  know  just  what  foodstuffs  were  included  in  our  ship- 
ments to  Europe.  Perhaps  she  got  some  necessities  from  other  countries, 
and  perhaps  we  had  to  get  goods  from  other  countries  in  order  to  send  her 
what  we  did. 

What  about  sugar?  Can  you  remember  how  in  1917  and  1918,  after 
we  ourselves  had  entered  the  World  War,  that  we  had  great  difficulty  in 
getting  sugar?  Your  mother  would  send  you  to  the  grocer  for  sugar  and 
the  most  he  would  give  you  was  a  pound — or,  if  your  mother  would  use  it 
for  preserving  fruits,  perhaps  five  pounds,  for  that  would  help  economize  on 
other  sweet  things?    If  you  went  to  the  restaurant,  you  would  be  given  one 


Fig.  81 


lump  with  your  coffee,  or  a  single  spoonful,  or  a  tiny  envelope  half  full.  A 
bowl  of  sugar  on  a  hotel  or  restaurant  table  was  a  very  unusual  sight,  and 
we  felt  the  pinch  a  great  deal.  We  didn't  feel  it  so  much  on  wheat  and  corn 
though,  did  we?  True,  we  ate  more  brown  bread  and  corn  bread  than  we 
ordinarily  do  and  less  fine  white  bread ;  but  no  one  in  America  went  really 
hungry  for  bread  on  account  of  breadstuffs  being  shipped  to  Europe. 

Why  did  we  notice  the  difference  in  the  sugar  supply  so  much  more 
than  in  the  flour?  One  important  reason  you  can  get  from  the  sugar  map. 
Fig.  8.  Who  raises  the  sugar  of  the  world  ?  What  arle  the  great  sugar-pro- 
ducing countries?  Do  you  notice  how  about  half  of  the  world's  sugar  comes 
from  beets  and  half  of  it  from  cane?    The  map  shows  interestingly  how 


1  Finch  &  Baker:  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 


16 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


beet  sugar  and  cane  sugar  are  not  raised  in  the  same  places.  There  are  two 
rather  clearly  marked  zones — the  northern  one  for  beet  sugar  and  the  south- 
ern one  for  cane  sugar. 

About  what  per  cent  of  the  world's  crop  of  sugar  does  the  United  States 
raise?-- 'where  in  the  United  States  is  sugar  raised?  Can  you  see  now  the 
reason  why  we  had  to  use  sugar  sparely,  especially  in  1917  and  1918  ?  What 
is  the  reason  ?    Study  Fig.  1  again. 

Of  the  foodstuffs  we  have  studied  so  far,  which  one  would  we  have  to 
raise  more  of  or  get  along  without? 


A     S  -^^^ 

Ski 

WORLD  TOTAL 
«2-«3O.00O  HEAD 

^^^^  \  ^'^-^ 

WORLD 
CATTLE 
NUMBER 

EACH  DOT  REPRESENTS  lOC.OTO 

%r 

Fig.  91 


What  is  a  very  important  food  that  we  haven't  yet  talked  about,  of 
which  we  sent  a  lot  to  Europe  during  the  war  ?  How  about  meat — especially 
beef  and  pork?    Fig.  9  shows  you  where  the  world's  cattle  are  raised. 

What  are  the  four  great  cattle-raising  sections?  How  important  a 
country  is  the  United  States  for  cattle-raising?  For  swine-raising?  If  trade 
with  other  nations  were  cut  off,  do  you  think  we  would  have  enough  beef 
and  pork  to  supply  our  needs?  Do  we  raise  as  many  cattle  in  proportion  to 
our  population  as  do  the  smaller  countries? 

Why  do  you  think  it  is  that  of  both  grain  and  meat  the  smaller  coun-  * 
tries  succeed  in  raising  a  larger  amount  per  acre  and  per  square  mile  of  their 
territory  than  we  do  ?    Is  it  because  they  have  more  people  to  feed  per  square 
mile?    Is  it  that  they  are  better  farmers  and  know  how  to  make  their  land 
produce  more,  or  why  is  it? 

Write  a  sentence  in  your  notebook  showing  whether  we  are  independ- 
ent of  the  rest  of  the  world  as  to  sugar  and  meat. 

1  Finch  &  Kuker:  GeoKiarhy  of  the  World's  ARruulture,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


CAN  THE  UNITED  STATES  LIVE  BY  ITSELF 


17 


Now  for  coffee.  The  American  people  drink  millions  of  gallons  of 
coffee  every  day.  There  is  hardly  a  household  but  serves  it  for  breakfast; 
and  in  thousands  it  is  served  at  lunch  or  dinner  as  well.  ''Coffee,  sir?"  is  the 
query  that  comes  from  the  waiters  at  every  hotel  and  restaurant  at  practically 
every  meal  they  serve  every  day  in  the  year.  The  Americans  are  a  great 
coffee-drinking  people.  How  much  coffee  do  we  raise  ourselves  ?  Figs.  10  and 


Fig.  101 


11  will  tell  you.  What  would  happen  if  our  foreign  trade  were  stopped? 
Would  we  have  coffee  ?  No,  we  would  go  without,  for  we  raise  none.  We  use 
over  twice  as  much  as  any  other  country  in  the 
world,  and  yet  we  raise  not  a  pound.  But  is  coffee 
a  necessity?  Many  physicians  and  scientists 
would  be  glad  if  we  couldn't  get  coffee,  for  they 
tell  us  that  it  is  injurious  to  good  health.  Whether 
that  be  true  or  not,  the  American  people  have  the 
coffee  habit  and  yet  must  depend  on  other  coun- 
tries for  their  supply.  Make  a  statement  in  your 
notebook  as  to  whether  we  would  be  self-sufficient 
and  independent  of  other  nations  for  our  food 
since  we  raise  no  coffee  ourselves. 

What  is  the  great  coffee  region  of  the  world  ? 

The  leading  coffee-producing  country  is  

.   (fill  in)  which 

raises  .*(>3.  .Cper  cent  of  the  world's  product. 

Where  does  the  fruit  we  use  come  from  ?  List  the  states  that  yau  hear 
mentioned  in  connection  with  apples,  oranges,  grapefruit,  pears,  peaches,  pine- 


1921  Imports  of 
Coffee  io  the  U.S. 


1  Finch  &  Baker:  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


18 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


apples,  grapes.  Why  would  we  have  to  raise  most  of  the  fruit  that  we  use? 
Without  a  map  other  than  Fig.  1,  you  can  make  a  pretty  fair  guess,  can't  you, 
as  to  whether  we  are  independent  of  other  nations  so  far  as  fruit  is  concerned? 

Now  have  we  taken  up  the  basic  foods  of  the  American  people?  Yes. 
There  are  other  foods  that  we  consume  in  large  quantities,  but  the  ones  we 
have  discussed  are  the  most  important  ones,  and  the  ones  which  would 
determine  whether  we  were  a  self-sufficient  nation. 


WHAT  WE  BUY  AND  SELL  FROM  OTHER  COUNTRIES*.     "eXPORTS"  AND 

'^IMPORTS.^' 

You  have  come  to  your  conclusions  about  whether  our  people  could 
live  if  other  nations  refused  to  trade  with  us  by  learning  where  the  world's 
foods  are  raised.    There  is  another  way  of  finding  out  whether  the  United 


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CAN  THE  UNITED  STATES  LIVE  BY  ITSELF 


19 


States  can  live  on  the  food  she  produces.  That  is  by  comparing  the 
amount  she  sells  to  other  countries — her  exports — ^with  the  amount  she 
buys  from  other  countries — her  imports. 

Table  II  gives  a  list  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  United  States 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1921. 

''Exports"  means  articles  that  any  of  the  people  of  the  United  States 
sell  to  other  countries.  ''Imports"  means  articles  bought  by  any  of  our 
people  from  the  people  of  other  countries.  So  anything  that  we  raise  or 
manufacture,  such  as  flour,  hides  or  shoes,  cotton  or  cloth,  iron  or  steel 
rails,  and  we  ship  to  other  countries,  is  called  an  "export".  Anything 
that  we  take  in  to  the  United  States  from  any  other  country  is  called  an 
"import". 

From  Table  II  you  can  compare  the  amount  of  each  important  article 
that  we  sold  to  other  people  with  the  amount  that  we  bought  from  them. 
Answer  the  following  questions  from  it: 

1.  To  what  extent  do  we  depend  upon  other  countries  for  our  rail- 
road cars?  our  automobile? 

2.  If  trade  with  other  nations  were  cut  off,  would  our  cotton  mills 
continue  to  run?    Explain  your  answer. 

Table  III. 


Manufactures  ready  for 

Consumption 

Year 

E!xports 

Imports 

1904 

$349 

$253 

1905 

402 

252 

1906 

460 

308 

1907 

481 

364 

1908 

489 

332 

1909 

440 

299 

1910 

499 

368 

1911 

598 

361 

1912 

672 

360 

1913 

776 

408 

1914 

725 

449 

1915 

807 

336 

1916 

1,998 

312 

1917 

2,943 

377 

1918 

2,185 

403 

1919 

2,384 

393 

1920 

2,834 

745 

1921 

2,643 

744 

3.  Would  our  steel  mills  and  railroads  have  to  stop  operating  be- 
cause of  lack  of  coal?  Because  of  shortage  of  railroad  cars  and  machine 
parts  ? 

4.  If  the  trade  embargo  were  prolonged  two  or  three  years,  do  you 
think  those  who  wear  fur  coats  or  use  animal  skins  in  one  way  or  another 
would  have  to  do  without?  Why? 


20 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


5.  Would  we  be  inconvenienced  by  lack  of  fish? 

6.  Would  our  fibre  manufacturers  keep  right  on  doing  business 
just  the  same? 

Table  III  shows  our  exports  and  imports  of  manufactures  ready  for 
consumption  from  1904  through  1921,  in  millions  of  dollars. 

What  do  you  notice  about  the  export  and  import  columns  in  this 
table?  Do  the  figures  of  the  import  column  increase  to  correspond  with 
the  increase  in  the  export  column  from  1916  on?  Write  in  your  note- 
book a  few  sentences  telling  the  facts  that  this  difference  suggests. 

Does  Table  III  indicate  that  we  have  been  depending  on  other 
countries  for  the  manufactured  articles  we  use? 


Have  you  enough  information  now  to  answer  the  question,  Can  the  United 
States  exist  independently  of  other  nations?    What  is  your  answer? 


II.    ENGLAND,  A  LITTLE  ISLAND,  MASTER  OF  ONE 
FOURTH  OF  THE  WORLD 

"I  tell  you,  England  wouldn't  last  a  month  if  we  stopped  shipping 
goods  to  her.  That  little  island!  Why,  look  at  the  size  of  her — not  as 
large  as  this  state  of  Kansas;  and  look  at  the  way  she's  fixed — depends  on 
other  countries  for  nearly  everything  she  uses." 

The  proprietor  of  the  Paola  House  in  Paola,  Kansas,  settled  back 
complacently  in  his  arm  chair  after  these  few  remarks  with  an  air  of  hav- 
ing completely  demolished  his  opponents'  arguments  about  England. 
Four  typical  Yankee  travelling  salesmen,  marooned  over  a  hot  week-end  in 
this  small  town  hotel,  were  sitting  alongside  of  the  proprietor  with  their 
feet  over  the  shining  rail  before  the  large  plate-glass  window  fronting  on  the 
square. 

Presently  a  distinctly  foreign  voice  broke  the  silence,  its  owner  pull- 
ing a  chair  up  and  adding  his  two  feet  to  the  row  on  the  shining  rail.  "Do 
you  know,  sir,  that  little'  England  is  the  greatest  trading  nation  in  the 
world,  that  she  exports  more  coal  than  even  the  United  States?  Do  you 
know  that  for  three  hundred  years  she  has  been  the  greatest  manufacturer 
of  woollen  goods  in  the  world  ?  That  she  has  more  than  thirty  million  sheep 
right  now  ?  Did  you  ever  get  a  glimpse  of  one  of  those  maps  where  the 
number  of  sheep  are  shown  by  dots — one  dot  for  every  200,000?  Well, 
England  looks  like  someone  had  spilt  a  bottle  of  ink  on  her — it  takes  that 
many  dots  to  show  the  number  of  sheep  she  has!  [Do  you  see  how  Fig.  12 
shows  this?]  Did  you  know  that  since  the  War  she  has  picked  up  on  her 
iron  and  steel  trade  until  now  she  exports  more  than  the  United  States — 
and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  War  nearly  knocked  us  completely 
out?" 

"Yes,  that's  all  right,"  came  from  one  of  the  salesmen,  "England's 
got  lots  of  cloth  and  steel  mills,  but" — triumphantly — "you  can't  eat  wool 
and  steel.  What  about  wheat  and  corn  and  meat?  Why  I  understand 
that  -England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales  together  don't  raise  one  fourth 
of  the  wheat  they  need  to  keep  their  people  aHve!"  (Was  he  right?  Can 
you  tell  from  Fig.  5?) 

"That's  true  enough,  our  United  Kingdom  depends  on  other  parts 
of  the  world  for  food.  If  we  should  be  completely  blockaded,  we'd  be 
starving  in  a  month.  We  probably  haven't  got  a  month's  food  supply  in 
England  right  now.  And  right  there,  men,  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  we're 
not  giving  Ireland  her  independence.     If  an  attempt  should  be  made  to 


22 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


blockade  us,  it's  a  fine  position  we'd  be  in  with  submarines  running  in  and 
out  of  Ireland's  hundreds  of  bays  and  inlets!  But  let  me  tell  you,  it's 
pretty  difficult  to  carry  through  a  blockade.  You'd  never  do  it,  and  you 
know  why — England's  navy.    The  greatest  navy  in  the  world !" 

"You're  right  there,"  broke  in  one  of  the  salesmen,  "England's  been 
Mistress  of  the  Seas  for  three  hundred  years — ever  since  she  licked  the 
Spanish  Armada.    I  knew  enough  history  for  that." 

"Sure,"  the  proprietor,  still  unconvinced,  came  back,  "sure.  But  we're 
not  talking  about  war— about  absolute  blockades.  We're  talking  about 
not  trading  with  England,  and  I  say  she  couldn't  live  a  month  without 


Why  do  you  think  England  raises  so  many  more  sheep  than  other  countries?  Who 

are  her  rivals? 
Fig.  121 

the  trade  of  other  nations.  Suppose  Argentina  should  decide  not  to  ship  wheat 
to  you,  and  to  buy  our  coal  instead  of  yours — we  could  sell  her  what  she 
needs,  you  know.  Suppose  she  should — what  would  you  do?  Suppose 
that  Russia — the  Ukraine — should  not  send  you  any  wheat  either.  What 
would  you  do?  And,  to  clinch  the  argument,  you  know  perfectly  well 
that  England  doesn't  raise  a  pound  of  cotton,  don't  you,  for  all  the  mil- 
lions of  yards  of  cloth  that  she  manufactures,  uses,  and  sends  abroad  each  year. 

"Yes,"  the  Englishman  agreed  with  a  smile,  "yes,  not  a  pound.  We 
bring  it  all  in  from  the  outside." 

"Well,  then,  how  can  you  think  England  would  outlast  a  trade  boy- 
cott— an  embargo?  We  wouldn't  have  to  blockade  her;  we  could  simply 
stop  trading  witli  her.  You  know  tlie  people  who  favor  tlie  League  of 
1  Finch  &  Baker:  CJeoKtapliy  of  the  World's  Agriculture,  V.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE:     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


23 


Nations  say  that's  the  best  way  to  make  a  country  come  to  time — just  stop 
trading  with  her  and  soon  she'll  have  to  do  as  the  other  countries  think  she 
ought  to." 

"That  theory  wouldn't  work  in  the  case  of  England,  my  dear  fellow. 
You'd  have  to  defeat  her  navy  first.  You  know  England's  got  colonies 
and  ships.  She  doesn't  need  to  trade  with  other  countries — that  is,  foreign 
ones.  Every  foreign  ship  in  the  world  could  refuse  to  sail  into  a  British 
port,  and  we  could  still  secure  the  food  and  cotton  and  other  things  we 
need  to  keep  going.  Are  you  surprised?  You  needn't  be.  Don't  for- 
get our  great  merchant  marine.  Do  you  realize  that  Great  Britian  has 
more  tons  of  ships  and  cargo  sailing  under  her  own  flag  than  any  other 
country  in  the  world?  Yes,  we  are  Mistress  of  the  Seas  because  we  have 
both  a  great  navy  and  the  greatest  merchant  marine." 

"But,"  insisted  the  proprietor,  "if  a  trade  embargo  was  declared 
against  you,  your  ships  couldn't  get  into  the  ports  of  other  countries  to 
get  the  goods." 

Again  the  quiet  smile  came  over  the  confident  Englishman's  counte- 
nance. "Oh,  ho!  by  'other  countries'  you  mean  foreign  countries;  their 
ports  of  course  would  be  closed  to  us.  But  you  forget  that  we  control  ports 
in  nearly  every  quarter  of  the  earth.  We  can  get  cotton  from  India  and 
cotton  from  Egypt — both  our  colonies — by  millions  of  bales;  wheat  from 
Bombay  and  Calcutta — also  England's  own — millions  of  bushels, — not  as 
good  wheat  as  Argentina's  or  Russia's  or  yours  in  Kansas  and  the 
Dakotas,  but  good  enough  to  get  along  on  in  a  pinch.  We  could  get 
wheat  and  cattle  from  Australia,  too,  and  spices,  tea,  rubber  for  our  great 
rubber  factories  from  China.  Why,  men,  London  is  the  most  important 
trading  city  in  the  entire  world  for  the  rubber,  tea,  spices,  jute,  and  such 
oriental  goods  that  come  from  certain  ports  in  China.  And  did  you 
realize  that  the  great  port  of  Hong  Kong,  among  others,  is  under  Eng- 
land's control  although  China  is  way  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth — 12,000 
miles  away ! 

A  chorus  of  objections  met  his  astonishing  statements.  Unperturbed 
he  went  on: 

"You  are  astonished?  You  do  not  think  it  possible?  But  it  is  true, 
every  bit.  It  wasn't  true  a  hundred  years  ago,  but  since  then  a  great 
change  has  come  about  in  "proprietorship"  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
earth.  Today  England  is  master  and  controls  one  fourth  of  the  territory 
of  the  whole  world.  And  more  than  400  million  people — one  fourth  of 
the  entire  population  of  the  earth — are  governed  under  the  British  flag." 


The  argument  that  followed  these  remarks  was,  you  may  be  sure,  a 
heated  one.    To  the  Yankee  salesmen  such  statements  were  preposterous. 


24 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


They  simply  couldn't  be  true.  "That  little  island  with  less  than  34 
million  people  master  of  a  quarter  of  the  earth's  surface!"  "Absurd"  they 
were  saying. 

Are  you  thinking  so,  too,  by  this  time?  Do  you  know  enough  about 
England — about  the  United  Kingdom — to  decide  whether  the  English- 
man spoke  truly?  Is  there  a  British  empire?  Does  it  extend  round  the 
earth  ?  Does  it  take  in  440  million  people  ?  These  are  certainly  important 
things  to  know  if  they  are  true.  Furthermore,  it  is  important  to  know  why 
and  how  such  a  thing  ever  came  about. 

If  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  should  combine  against  the  United  States, 
she  could  provide  the  necessary  foods  and  materials  for  clothing  and  shelter 
which  her  population  demands.  This  you  have  just  learned  from  read- 
ing and  map  studies.     Is  this  true  of  the  other  great  nations  of  the  world? 

Do  you  know  what  the  great  "powers"  are?  In  the  World  War  which 
ended  in  1918,  the  great  nations  opposing  each  other  were.^^/.  .  i^^  J  .uV...:..^ 

JC^..r..>f<v^^.  .dt3^^..i.A-A^.   , 

^^J^  I.     (Fill  in   the   names.)     Does  each  of  these 

Countries  cover  a  large  area?  Does  the  map  of  Fig,  2  tell  you  that  the 
United  States  is  one  of  the  largest  countries  of  the  world?  From  this 
map  compare  the  extent  of  the  territories  of  the  other  countries  in  the 
list  that  follows.  Write  the  numeral  1  before  the  largest  country;  2 
before  the  second  largest;  3  before  the  third  largest,  and  so  on  through 
the  list.  If  you  cannot  tell  from  the  map  whether  one  country  is  larger 
than  another^  look  up  the  area  of  each  country  in  the  tables  in  the  back  of 
your  geography. 

,/  .  .   Germany  .  Argentina 

.  i.   China  .  A  /  The  United  Kingdom 

.'T.  France  (England,  Scotland, 

'  Russia  ^  (Ireland,  and  Wales) 

United  States  .  ^  •  Canada 

.1   Mexico  .      .  Brazil 

.  ?f.  Spain 

Which  country  is  the  smallest?     Which  three  are  the  largest? 

Do  you  think  the  countries  largest  in  area  also  have  the  most  people? 
Look  up  in  the  back  of  your  geography  for  the  population  of  each  of  these 
countries,  and  fill  in  the  larger  spaces  below. 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  :     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


25 


Germany 
China  ^^-^^ 
France 
Russia 

United  States 
Mexico 
Spain 
Argentina 

The  United  Kingdom 
Canada 
Brazil 

Number  the  largest  1,  the  second  largest  2,  and  so  on  through  the  list. 

How  does  the  list  of  territories  compare  with  the  list  of  populations? 
Would  you  say  that  the  countries  of  largest  size  have  the  largest  number 
of  people? 

We  are  especially  interested  in  England.  What  does  the  list  you 
have  made  tell  you  about  the  territory  and  the  population  of  England? 
Let  us  study  the  size  of  England  as  shown  on  the  world  map.  What  a 
small  country  it  is!  It  doesn't  look  much  larger  than  Italy,  and  cer- 
tainly it  is  not  as  large  as  France  or  Spain  or  Germany  or  Sweden.  Per- 
haps it  is  no  larger  than  Czecho-Slovakia.  You  can  check  this  up  from  the 
figures  in  your  geography.  And  how  small  the  little  island  is  compared 
with  the  United  States,  Russia,  China,  or  India? 

Now,  let  us  turn  to  the  population  map.  Fig.  3.  Notice  how  black 
England  is,  especially  the  southern  part.  Can  you  imagine  the  city  of 
London  with  its  four  million  people  down  in  the.  heart  of  the  blackest 
region?  Locate  it  on  a  map  in  your  geography.  It  is  about  50  miles  up 
the  Thames  River  on  the  southeastern  point  of  England. 

Forty-five  million  people  in  that  little  group  of  islands!  Can  it  be 
possible?  Does  the  population  appear  to  be  scattered  equally  over  the 
British  Isles?  No,  thirty-four  million  of  the  people  in  the  United  King- 
dom— that  is,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales — are  in  England 
alone.  Only  four  million  are  in  Ireland,  and  about  seven  million  in  Scot- 
land and  Wales.  Furthermore,  the  people  of  England  live  to  a  very 
large  extent  in  towns  and  cities.  Just  think,  one-fifth  of  all  England's 
people  live  in  greater  London  (the  city  and  surrounding  suburbs)  alone. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  think  of,  isn't  it?  Look  over  at  the  way  the 
population  is  scattered  in  the  United  States.  Are  our  people  concentrated 
in  cities  the  way  they  are  in  southern  England?  Yes,  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  through  the  northeastern  part  of  the  country  the  map  looks  very 


i 


Area 


!9. 


.3 


3fOf^UJ.ci  .3.. 
i,.D.p'.t^v. 


i'opuiation 


26 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


black  indeed.  Can  you  tell  where  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Bal- 
timore, Pittsburgh,  Cleveland,  and  Chicago  are?  Well,  the.  people  are 
living  as  closely  together  pretty  generally  all  over  England  as  they  are  in 
such  cities  as  these  in  America.  This  great  concentration  of  human  be- 
ings in  a  little  country  like  England  is  very  important  for  us  to  study. 

Examine  the  bar  graphs  below  the  population  map.  Fig.  3,  which  show 
the  number  of  people  living,  per  square  mile,  in  the  different  countries.  Of 
the  eight  countries  which  are  given  there — China,  India,  European  Russia, 
the  United  States,  the  German  Empire  (before  1918),  Japan,  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  the  United  Kingdom — which  one  has  the  largest  number 
of  people  to  the  square  mile?  Which  has  the  smallest  number?  Eng- 
land has  almost  400  and  the  United  States  has  only  25.  Think  of  it — 
400  people  to  the  square  mile.  Out  in  the  far  West  of  the  United  States 
there  are  many  hundreds  of  square  miles  in  which  less  than  two  people 
live  to  each  square  mile.  In  pioneer  times  this  was  true  to  an  even  greater 
extent,  and  throughout  the  whole  early  history  of  our  country  there  were 
great  stretches  of  land  almost  entirely  uninhabited.  The  line  which 
marked  off  the  inhabited  region  from  the  region  where  less  than  two  people 
were  living  per  square  mile  was  called  the  frontier.  That  line  disap- 
peared as  people  moved  -on  out  to  the  coast  and  settled  patches  all  over  the 
country,  but  even  now  the  United  States  with  its  106  millions  of  people, 
is  so  large  that  there  is  an  average  of  one  square  mile  of  land  to  very  25 
people.  But  in  England  there  is  only  one  square  mile  to  every  400  people. 
Notice  the  large  number  of  people  Germany  has  to  the  square  mile.  Look 
at  Germany  on  the  population  map.  Do  you  see  the  black  area  where 
Germany  lies?  Now  look  over  at  Asia — China  with  more  than  200 
people  to  the  square  mile,  and  India  with  180  to  the  square  mile.  Similarly, 
Japan  with  190.  China  and  India  are  huge  countries  of  tremendous  area 
with  over  600  millions  of  people — 40  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the 
entire  world.  The  English  people  on  the  other  hand — smallest  of  all  the 
great  powers — live  huddled  up  in  the  southern  corner  of  a  little  isolated 
island.    Why  is  England  a  great  power  since  she  is  so  small? 

Are  the  countries  of  largest  size  the  countries  of  greatest  power? 
Were  they  the  leading  countries  in  the  World  War?  Are  the  countries 
of  the  largest  population  the  countries  of  greatest  power?  How  many 
of  these  were  "powers"  in  the  World  War?  Was  China?  She  has  a  tre- 
mendously large  territory  with  over  300  million  people,  and  hence  a  labor 
supply  that  is  almost  unlimited.  Was  India?  She  too  is  large  and  has 
hundreds  of  millions  of  people,  but  is  she  a  world  power? 

On  the  other  hand,  England  is  very  small — only  a  small  fraction  of 
the  size  of  India  or  China  with  a  tenth  as  many  people  as  either  of  those 
countries.  But  she  is  a  world  power.  She  controls  the  destinies  of  peoples 
by  the  millions  in  lands  all  over  the  earth.    Why  is  she  a  world  power? 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  :     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


27 


Is  France  regarded  as  a  world  power?  Is  the  little  island  empire  of 
Japan  with  an  area  less  than  a  tenth  as  large  as  India,  and  less  than  a 
thirtieth  the  size  of  China,  regarded  as  a  world  power?  In  spite  of  her 
size,  she  sat  in  at  the  peace  table  at  the  end  of  the  World  War  and  helped 
to  decide  the  fate  of  the  Germans  in  Europe  and  the  Chinese  across  the 
Yellow  Sea  in  China.    What  do  you  think  makes  a  nation  a  world  power? 


Do  you  think  the  people  of  England  could  continue  to  live  long  if 
the  United  States  and  France,  Spain,  Germany,  Italy,  and  all  the  other 
great  countries  of  the  world  should  decide  some  fine  day  that  they  would 
not  trade  with  her,  that  they  would  not  send  any  ships  with  food  or  machin- 
ery or  clothing, or  manufactured  goods  of  any  kind  to  England's  shores? 


28 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


How  could  she?  With  400  people  to  every  square  mile  of  her  territory, 
she  certainly  wouldn't  be  able  to  raise  enough  crops  and  animal  stock  and 
at  the  same  time  manufacture  all  that  she  would  need  to  supply  the  wants 
of  her  people. 

Yet,  England  could  exist  even  if  this  unthought  of  event  should  take 
place.  How  can  it  be?  Can  you  see  any  differences  between  the  countries 
of  which  you  found  the  area  and  population  a  few  pages  back  which  would 
suggest  the  answer? 

Have  you  thought  of  the  fact  that  some  of  the  countries  are  home 
countries  only— that  is,  that  all  the  territory  they  own  is  within  a  single 
boundary  line,  and  that  others  are  both  home  countries  and  have  colonies? 
To  which  class  does  England  belong?  The  United  States?  Japan? 
France?  China?  India?  Russia?  To  which  class  did  Germany  be- 
long before  the  War?  To  which  class  does  she  belong  now?  Which 
of  these  countries  are  world  powers?  Does  this  suggest  to  you  an  answer 
to  the  question.  What  makes  a  nation  a  world  power? 

Let's  see  where  England  gets  the  food,  coal,  and  articles  for  manu- 
facture which  she  uses  but  does  not  produce  within  her  own  island? 

What  part  of  the  wheat  that  Englishmen  consume  in  breadstuffs  do 
you  think  is  raised  in  the  home  country?  Turn  back  to  Fig.  5.  How 
many  bushels  of  wheat  per  capita  does  the  United  Kingdom  consume  ? 
How  many  does  it  produce?  In  the  last  of  countries  represented  in  this 
chart  which  are  the  ones  that  pay  allegiance  to  the  United  Kingdom?  Do 
these  countries  produce  more  or  less  than  they  consume?  From  which 
countries,  therefore,  do  you  think  England  gets  her  wheat? 

In  1919  the  United  Kingdom  imported  3200  million  pounds  from  other 
parts  of  the  Empire  (that  is,  from  her  colonies)  and  over  3900  million 
pounds  from  foreign  countries.  The  following  table  shows  what  countries 
she  imported  from. 

United  States  3200  million  pounds  Australia  1500 
Canada  1700       "  "  Argentina  700 

Which  of  these  countries  belong  to  the  British  Empire?  You  will 
notice  that  India  is  not  mentioned,  although  she  produces  wheat.  Why 
doesn't  England  get  wheat  from  India?  She  could  get  all  she  needed  with- 
out going  outside  of  her  empire  at  all.  One  reason  is  that  she  gets  better 
wheat  from  Argentina  and  the  United  States,  and  another  one  is  that  in 
return  for  wheat  these  countries  purchase  coal  and  manufactured  goods  from 
England  But  if  she  needed  to,  she  could  get  her  whole  supply  from 
Canada,  Australia,  and  India,  so  that  so  far  as  wheat  is  concerned,  a  trade 
embargo  would  not  seriously  worry  her. 

What  about  other  foodstuffs— potatoes  and  cattle?    Turn  back  to  Fig. 
7  and  answer  the  following  questions: 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  I     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


29 


1.  Who  raises  the  potatoes  of  the  world? 

2.  How  does  England  stand  as  a  potato-raising  country? 

3.  From  the  information  you  have  in  the  map  and  the  bar  graphs 
below  it.  what  is  your  judgment  as  to  whether  England  would  be  inde- 
pendent of  the  rest  of  the  world  as  far  as  potatoes  are  concerned  ? 

Now  turn  to  the  cattle  map,  Fig.  9,  and  answer  similar  questions  from 

it? 

Meanwhile,  you  can  easily  see  why  England  wants  to  maintain  very 
friendly  relations  with  Canada  and  Australia.  Certainly  if  she  did  not 
have  these  countries  which  she  controls  to  depend  upon,  she  w^ould  starve 
in  a  very  short  time  in  case  of  a  trade  embargo. 

THE  LEADING  PART  PLAYED  BY  THE  COTTON  AND  WOOLLEN  INDUSTRIES 

OF  ENGLAND. 

Since  the  days  of  the  1400s  and  1500s  when  all  yarn  was  spun  and 
cloth  was  woven  laboriously  by  hand,  the  woollen  and  cotton  fabrics  of 
England  have  been  sold  in  many  parts  of  the  earth.  After  England's 
inventors  in  the  1700s  and  early  1800s  learned  how  to  make  many  new 
kinds  of  machines,  weaving  that  had  formerly  been  done  slowly  and  at 
great  cost  on  hand  looms  was  done  quickly  and  in  large  quantities  by  the  use 
of  the  flying  shuttle  invented  by  Kay  in  1738,  the  spinning  jinny  invented  by 
Hargreaves  in  1764,  the  spinning  mule  invented  by  Crompjjfton  in  1779.  And 
when — most  important  of  all — Watts  showed  them  how  to  make  machines 
go  by  steam  power  (1769),  England's  manufacturing  increased  by  leaps  and 
bounds.  At  first  she  was  very  jealous  or  having  her  inventions  used  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  You  remember  how  the  American  colonies  were  not 
permitted  to  spin  yarn,  to  manufacture  cloth,  or  to  make  iron  goods.  The 
government  of  the  mother  country  working  in  close  co-operation  with  her 
manufacturers  restricted  manufactures  in  all  the  colonies  and  dependencies. 
That  has  been  the  history  of  affairs  in  Ireland  from  the  beginning.  For 
hundreds  of  years  Ireland  was  oppressed  by  the  English  king  and  the  parlia- 
ment largely  because  the  Irish  had  learned  how  to  manufacture  things.  As 
early  as  1600  the  Irish  made  fine  woolens.  They  sold  these  abroad  in  England 
and  France,  and  in  other  countries  of  Europe.  They  had  learned  how  to 
make  cotton  goods,  how  to  turn  out  articles  of  glass,  of  iron,  and  how  .to  refine 
sugar,  but  after  English  weavers  learned  how  to  make  fine  cloth  they  did  not 
want  their  trade  interfered  with ;  so  they  got  the  English  government  to  forbid 
the  Irish  to  make  woollen  cloth.  This  began  as  early  as  1699.  In  the  next  150 
years  England  passed  one  law  after  another  that  in  the  end  made  it  prac- 
tically impossible  for  Irishmen  to  manufacture  or  sell  the  things  they  had 
learned  how  to  make.  This  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  when 
manufacturers  in  a  home  country  build  up  a  big  business  there  is  a  tendency 


30 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


on  the  part  of  the  home  government  to  decide  to  restrict  manufacturing 
in  the  colonies.  Certainly  it  was  true  in  the  American  colonies  and  in 
Ireland. 

The  climate  of  the  British  Isles  is  such  that  much  rain  falls,  grass 
lands  abound,  and  sheep  and  cattle-raising  have  been  turned  to  rather  than 
to  growing  of  grains.  The  map  of  Fig.  12  shows  the  one  agricultural 
pursuit  in  which  the  British  Isles  are  supreme.  England  raises  more 
sheep  than  other  European  nations.  The  United  Kingdom  alone  has  over 
30  distinct  breeds  of  sheep.  The  blackened  area  of  the  British  Isles  in 
the  map  may  well  mean  to  you  23,000,000  sheep  which  are  kept  on  the 
British  Isles. 

The  chief  reason  they  are  kept  on  the  islands  is  of  course  that  English 
weavers  of  w^ooUen  cloth  make  the  wool  from  the  sheep,  and  from  the  wool 
they  manufacture  the  fabrics.  So  you  see  the  sheep  and  the  woollen  in- 
dustries of  Great  Britian  with  their  hundreds  of  years  of  history  go  hand 
in  hand.  England  has  thousands  of  skilled  dyers,  spinners,  carders, 
warpers,  weavers,  finishers,  working  in  its  scores  of  woollen  factories. 
Can  you  find  Leads  on  the  map  of  England,  and  Bradford  and  Leicester? 
Well,  these  are  the  principal  woollen  and  manufacturing  centers  for 
cloth,  worsted  goods,  blankets,  hosiery,  and  carpets.  Study  the  topography 
on  a  physical  map  of  the  British  Isles.  (What  do  we  mean  by  "topog- 
raphy"?) Do  you  see  how  these  communities  are  in  the  hilly  section 
of  northern  England?  To  the  south  where  the  land  is  mure  level,  the 
small  proportion  of  the  population  engaged  in  agriculture  is  to  be  found. 

While  England's  supremacy  in  woollen  manufacture  has  been  develop- 
ing, her  leadership  in  cotton  manufacturing  has  also  been  growing  up. 
Isn't  it  interesting  to  find  that  England  is  one  of  the  chief  cotton  manu- 
facturing countries  of  the  world  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  she  doesn't  raise 
a  pound  of  cotton  in  the  entire  island?  Cotton  can  be  grown  only  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions  of  temperature  and  rainfall.  For  that 
reason  we  find  that  only  four  regions  on  the  earth  are  producing  the 
world's  cotton  supply:  first,  the  southeastern  part  of  the  United  States: 
second,  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  India;  and  third,  a  small  area 
around  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  River  in  Egypt.  Sixty  per  cent  of  the 
world's  cotton  is  produced  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  '^'"ates. 
Examine  the  map  of  Fig.  14.  Do  you  see  the  heavy  line  marked 
"200  days  of  frostless  season"  surrounding  the  states  of  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  Arkansas,  Texas,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Florida, 
Georgia,  and  South  Carolina?  This  is  the  famous  cotton  belt  of 
America.  -Do  you  see  the  other  heavy  line  surrounding  this  belt  marked 
"23  inches  of  annual  precipitation"?  This  means  that  each  year  there 
are  about  23  inches  of  rainfall.  The  black  dots,  each  one  standing  for 
5()()()  acres  on  wiiich  cotton  is  raised,  give  you  a  good  illustration  of  the 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  I     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


31 


32 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


fact  that  cotton  must  have  an  even,  frostless  climate  and  a  moderate  and 
well-distributed  amount  of  rainfall.  The  cotton  plant  requires  about 
seven  months  free  from  frost  with  plenty  of  rain.  This  means  of  course 
that  England  with  its  heavy  rainfall  and  its  variable  climate  could  not 
raise  cotton.  The  fields  have  to  be  ploughed  and  planted  in  April  and 
May  when  it  is  fairly  dry  as  it  is  in  southern  United  States.  In  mid- 
summer when  the  plants  are  rapidly  growing  rain  is  wanted.  This  too 
is  true  of  conditions  in  our  southern  states.  In  the  autumn  when  the 
cotton  is  developing  and  the  growth  of  the  stem  of  the  plant  is  much 
slower  cotton  needs  little  rain.  But  these  conditions  are  not  true  of 
England  and  so  she  raises  no  cotton. 


Fig.  15 


Which  countries  raise  the  world's  cotton?  Study  Fig.  15.  What  are 
the  three  great  cotton-raising  countries?  How  many  of  these  are  con- 
trolled by  England?  What  would  happen  if  the  United  States  refused 
to  let  her  have  any  of  our  cotton?  Diagram  A  of  Fig.  15  shows  the 
amount  of  the  world's  production  of  cotton  raised  by  the  dif¥erent  countries; 
Diagram  B  shows  the  percentages  used  by  the  different  countries  in  the 
year  1913.  Compare  the  amount  England  uses  with  the  amount  she 
produces.  Could  India  and  Egypt  alone  supply  England's  needs?  Do 
either  of  these  countries  use  any  themselves?  If,  however,  England  couldn't 
get  any  cotton  from  the  United  States  and  had  to  depend  entirely  upon  Egypt 
and  India  for  her  supply,  do  you  not  think  she  would  be  able  to  get  along  on  a 
little  less  and  in  tliat  way  be  independent  of  other  nations?  That  is  quite 
probable. 

Would  luigland  be  able  to  keep  warm  if  a  trade  embargo  were  declared 
against  her?  Would  she  have  enough  fuel  to  keep  her  ships'  furnaces 
going?  Could  she  keep  the  engines  of  her  trains  fired,  and  could  she  find 
enough  fuel  for  her  factories?    Study  the  bar  graphs  of  Fig.  16. 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE:     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


33 


Austria 


ENGLAND  MANUFACTURER,  NOT  FARMER. 

Do  you  notice  that  the  little  island  of  England  alone  mines  22  per 
cent  of  the  whole  world's  coal  ?  How  much  does  she  consume  ?  This 
means,  of  course,  that  she  has  seven  per  cent  left  to  ship  to  other  parts 
of  the  world.  It  means  also,  doesn't  it,  that  she  uses  a  great  deal  more  for  her 
size  than  any  other  great  nation ;  she  uses  immense  quantities  for  her  great 

COAL 

Production  Hi  Consumption  ^ 

Countries  Expressed  in  percent  of  worlds  production  and  consumption 

0         10         20        30        40        50        60        70         80        90  100 

United 
States 

Austria 
Huno|aria 

France  BL 

Russia  ^ 

Belgium  ^ 

Japan  J 

^^'^''^  I  Fig.  16 

navy.  We  think  of  England,  too,  as  a  great  manufacturing  nation,  for  you 
remember  she  has  a  very  dense  population  all  over  her  island,  and  the  number 
of  people  employed  in  her  factories  is  many  times  as  large  as  the  number  en- 
gaged in  agriculture.  Here  is  a  table  which  shows  the  occupations  of  the 
people  of  England  and  Wales  aged  10  years  and  upward,  in  1911. 

Table  IV 

Total  population  in  1911—36,000,000. 

Occupations  Total 

Government   299,599 

Defence   205,817 

Professional  

Domestic   2,121,717 

Commercial   2,214,031 

Agriculture  and  Fishing   1,260,476 

Industrial   9,468,138 

Unoccupied  and  unspecified   12,234,914 

Total   28,519,313 


34 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Of  the  28  and  a  half  million  people  over  ten  years  of  age,  over  12  million 
were  either  unoccupied  or  unaccounted  for.  Of  the  16  million  for  whom 
occupations  were  specified,  only  1,260,476  were  engaged  either  in  agricul- 
ture or  fishing.  Nine-sixteenths — more  than  half — were  engaged  in  in- 
dustrial occupations.  Over  half  are  making  things  in  shops  and  manu- 
facturing plants,  and  one  eighth  are  engaged  in  trade — in  selling  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  factory  workers. 

COAL  IS  KING  IN  THE  MANUFACTURING  WORLD. 

The  great  western  countries — England,  Germany,  France,  the  L  nited 
States — are  the  leading  ones  in  these  days  chiefly  for  the  reason  that  they 
manufacture  and  ship  goods  all  over  the  world.  You  will  read  interesting 
stories  later  which  will  tell  you  how  it  happened  that  our  wonderful  indus- 
trial age  developed,  how  it  can  be  that  from  1829  to  1831  England  only 
shipped  243  million  pounds  of  cotton  goods,  whereas  in  1911-1913  she  ship- 
ped to  other  countries  2074  milHon  pounds.  Such  great  advances  in  amount 
of  goods  manufactured  are  due  in  large  part  of  course  to  the  fact  that  today 
nearly  everything  is  made  by  machine  whereas  in  earlier  days  so  much  of  the 
manufacturing  was  done  by  hand.  If  we  had  the  facts  for  the  amount  of 
cotton  goods  shipped  in,  say  1750,  the  contrast  with  today  would  be  even 
greater.  In  1750  there  was.nQ.such  thing  as.  a.lqmmerli^^steam  engine  or  a 
loom  run  by  steam  power.  Then  all  yarn  had  to  be  spun  slowly  by  hand 
and  the  shuttle  had  to  be  thrown  back  and  forth  through  the  warp  of  the 
loom  by  the  skilled  hand  of  the  weaver. 

So  if  we  look  over  the  statistics  of  manufacturs  today  we  are  startled 
by  the  huge  figures  and  by  the  great  growth  in  manufactures  that  has  come 
about  principally  from  the  use  of  machinery  and  the  steam  engine. 

But  in  order  to  make  steam  engines  go  some  kind  of  fuel  has  to  be  burned. 
During  the  last  century  and  a  half  men  have  learned  how  to  take  coal  out  of 
the  earth,  and  to  burn  it  in  furnaces,an  d  to  heat  water  so  as  to  make  steam 
and  thereby  generate  power.  Do  you  see,  then,  that  for  a  century  to  be  a 
great  manufacturing  center  it  must  have  coal  or  oil  or  some  other  kind  of 
power,  perhaps  water  power?  For  the  past  150  years  the  fuel  of  the  world 
has  been  coal. 

England  is  a  great  coal-producing  country,  as  we  have  seen.  From  Fig. 
16  you  can  find  out  the  amount  of  coal  exported  by  the  principal  nations  of 
the  western  world.  If  you  knew  nothing  else  about  the  occupations  of  the 
people  of  England  than  what  you  could  get  from  Fig.  16,  in  what  kinds  of 
occupations  would  you  think  they  were  engaged— in  agriculture,  in  fishing, 
or  in  industrial  work?  Why? 

Look  at  the  map  of  Fig.  17.  This  shows  where  the  seaborne  coal 
trade  of  the  world  is.  From  what  country  does  the  heaviest  traffic  in  coal 
appear  to  move?     Does  the  United  States  appear  to  export  much  coal? 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE:     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


35 


To  what  places  does  her  coal  seem  to  go?  Where  does  England's  coal 
appear  to  be  shipped  to  ?  Do  you  see  the  heavy  strand  of  coal  trade  run- 
ning down  from  England  to  Argentina  and  Brazil  and  South  America? 
The  manufacturers  of  England  have  been  very  clever  in  planning  the 


shipments  of  their  freight.  They  ship  English  and  Welsh  coal  to  Ar- 
gentina and  Brazil  and  in  the  same  boats  bring  back  to  England  on  the 
return  trips  large  quantities  of  wheat  and  meat  from  Argentina  and  coffee 


36 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


from  Brazil.  Whv  are  the  mercahants  so  careful  to  plan  things  this 
way?    Do  you  think  it  would  have  any  effect  upon  the  cost  of  foodstuffs  m 

England  ?  , 

Look  again  at  the  very  heavy  band  of  trade  which  appears  to  go  trom 
England  south  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Do  you  see  how  the  band 
gets  smaller  as  it  moves  by  the  coast  of  France  and  Spain  and  passes  mto  the 
Mediterranean,  finally  entering  the  Suez  Canal  and  becominf  very  thm  as  it 
passes  down  the  Red  Sea  and  through  the  Indian  Ocean?  This  is  a  very 
interesting  way  that  the  artist  who  drew  the  map  had  of  showing  you  that 
as  the  fleets  of  coal  ships  leave  English  ports  some  of  them  sail  into  French 
harbors,  still  more  drop  out  of  the  Hne  and  steam  into  the  harbors  of 
Portugal,  Spain,  France.  Later  on  some  turn  northward  through  the  Ad- 
riatic Sea  and  drop  anchor  in  northern  Italy.  Others  leave  their  stores  of 
fuel  in  the  Balkan  harbors,  in  Constantinople,  and  even  up  along  the  coast 
of  the  Black  Sea.  A  few  make  Alexanderia  and  the  ports  of  Eg^^t  their 
destination.  A  small  proportion  go  through  the  Suez  Canal  down  the 
Red  Sea  touching  at  certain  Indian  ports  on  the  Indian  Ocean. 

LITTLE  GREAT  BRITAIN  A  WORLD  POWER 

IS  SHE  SELF-SUFFICIENT? 

What  do  you  think  now  is  the  answer  to  the  big  question  that  we 
faced  at  the  beginning:  Could  England  exist  if  a  trade  embargo  were 
declared  against  her? 

Yes,  she  could  exist  if  all  the  great  nations  of  the  world  refused  to 
trade  with  her.  But  what  is  the  only  thing  that  makes  this  possible? 
What  is  the  secret  of  her  power?  Think  of  34  million  people  on  a  little 
bit  of  an  island  like  England  being  independent  of  all  the  great  nations 
of  the  earth.  Germany  was  blockaded  for  four  years  (1914-1918)  and 
had  a  very  difficult  time  getting  enough  food  to  keep  her  people  from  starv- 
ing. Yet  Germany  had  three  and  a  half  times  as  much  land,  raised  more 
corn,  rye,  and  other  foodstuffs  than  England,  and  had  only  half  again  as  many 
people  to  take  care  of.  How  does  England  do  it?  What  is  the  secret 
of  her  power  and  independence  ? 

Colonies  and  possessions  in  all  parts  of  the  earth— that  is  the  secret! 
You  remember  that  the  Englishman  of  the  story  told  his  companions  that 
England  was  master  of  one  fourth  of  the  territory  of  the  world.  He  told 
the  truth,  sure  enough.  Turn  back  to  the  population  map.  Fig.  3,  and 
study  the  second  bar  graph  showing  the  areas  of  different  countries.  Com- 
pare the  area  of  the  United  Kingdom  with  that  of  China,  India,  the  United 
States.  While  you're  comparing  areas,  compare  populations  as  shown  in 
the  third  bar  graph.     Tlic  population  of  the  whole  British  Empire— that 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  I     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


37 


is,  England  and  her  possessions — is  475  million,  while  the  population  of  the 
whole  earth  is  less  than  1800  million,  so  you  see  she  really  controls  more 
than  one-fourth  of  the  people  of  the  world.    Isn't  that  astounding! 

Now  how  in  the  wide  world  did  England  gain  all  this  mastery?  Did 
it  come  all  at  once?  No,  very  slowly.  It  has  taken  her  over  three 
hundred  years  to  acquire  all  the  territory  she  now  controls.  During  all 
this  time  her  statesmen  have  followed  the  policy  generation  after  genera- 
tion of  sending  Englishmen  out  to  colonize  the  rich  undeveloped  lands 
of  the  earth.  See  how  they  have  gone  forth — to  Australia,  almost  ex- 
actly on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth  from  England;  to  India,  to  the 
eastern  coast  of  China.  Fig.  13  will  show  you  how  one  by  one  great 
lands  all  over  the  earth  have  been  added  to  England's  domain.  What  a 
stupendous  settling  of  a  great  continent  is  the  work  of.  Englishmen  in 
Agrica.  Study  the  map  of  Africa  in  Fig.  13.  What  fractional  part  of 
all  Africa  is  now  controlled  by  Britain  as  a  part  of  the  British  Empire? 
Notice  the  great  strip  hundreds  of  miles  wide  on  each  side  of  the  Nile  River 
running  clear  south  to  Zanzabar  and  the  Tanganyika  territory  which  Eng- 
land secured  at  the  end  of  the  World  War.  From  there  she  has  cut  almost 
a  clear  path  to  Cape  Town,  the  southernmost  promontory  of  the  African 
continent.  Going  up  the  western  coast,  Nigeria,  the  Gold  Coast,  Sierra 
Leone,  and  Gambria  are  large  colonial  possessions  also  forming  a  part  of  this 
great  British  Em.pire. 

Among  the  oldest  of  England's  possessions  is,  of  course,  Canada.  The 
eastern  part  of  Canada  was  acquired  150  years  ago;  the  western  part 
definitely  became  hers  a  half  century  ago.  More  than  half  of  North 
America  is  controlled  by  the  little  Anglo-Saxon  isle.  Even  into  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies  Islands,  England  has  found  her  way,  and 
Bermuda,  the  Bahamas,  Jamaica,  the  Barbadoes,  Trinidad,  British  Guienna, 
and  British  Honduras  for  more  than  a  century  have  paid  allegiance  to 
the  kings  of  England  and  have  shipped  their  produce  in  English  ships  to 
the  mother  country.  As  outposts  on  the  far-flung  frontier  of  empire  we 
find  scattered  through  the  Pacific  Ocean  many  island  bases  at  which  British 
ships  touch  and  on  which  the  natives  are  ruled  by  the  Union  Jack.  Find 
these  places  on  the  map  of  Fig.  13  :  Christmas  Island,  Phoenix  Island,  Union 
Island,  the  Samoa  Islands,  Cook  Island,  Tonga  Island,  Ducie  Island,  Pit- 
cairn  Island,  Chatham  Island,  Fanning  Island. 

Yes,  paths  of  the  British  Empire  have  been  blazed  over  the  whole  world. 
When  was  most  of  it  done— 1000  years  ago?  500?  300?  No,  most 
of  it  has  been  done  in  the  last  century. 


38 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


MAP  EXERCISE 

I.    On  a  blank  map  fill  in  the  possessions  Great  Britain  had  before 

^^'^How  small  she  was  then  as  compared  with  what  she  is  today!  In 
Australia  one  little  group  of  settlements  had  been  made  on  the  -utheastern 
coast  A  strip  of  the  western  coast  of  India  surroundmg  Bombay  and  a 
Uip  north  of  and  including  Calcutta  paid  allegiance  to  England  befo 
1800;  a  few  scattered  islands  in  the  Pacific  and  the  West  1"^-,  and  the 
eastern  half  of  Canada-only  a  small  part  of  which  was  hab.table,  how- 
ever— also  recognized  her  as  their  ruler. 

II  On  the  same  map  show  in  another  way-either  by  dots  or  lines 
if  y"'  used  solid  black  before-the  territory  that  England  acqu.red  be- 

m!?!  ht'e^t  L  the  1800s  were  for  England's  imperial  ambitions! 

reds  of  millions  of  people  to  her  empire.   The  rest  ot  Australia  v 
of  the  entire  continent-was  made  a  part  of  the  British  Empire  in  1836.  I860, 
1863  thus  adding  a  continent  five  times-yes,  ten  times  as  large  as  the  BrU^ 
sh  li  themselves.   Egypt,  coming  under  the  -trol  of^  B^^^^^^^^^^  -  8 

t  1795  English  aspirations  soared  until  by  degrees  she  had  drawn  into  h  r 

1,  a  eI:,  1  1882    nd  w..kd  »».hw.ri  tod-  ta  d.c.d.,  k.r 

,H.  ..,™,io.  o<  *.  T™«,  .  -.^tl?.;,  to  ,8«,  .nd 

ain's  in  1821,  and  was  added  to  in  IVIV ,  i^g" 

was  also  added  to  in  1919  acquisitions?   Has  England  been 

And  what  shall  we  say  about  her  recen      q  ^^^^^ 
content  with  this  great  empue     No^     n   t  ^^^^^^^ 

:S::i^'Z::^:i::::tt:J^  outposts  .  Mesopotamia,  Pa.- 
tine  New  Guinea,  and  South  Africa. 

III.    On  your  map,  indicate  in  still  another  way  the  territories  Eng- 
land has  acquired  since  1914  ^^^^^^^ 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE:     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


39 


Indies  rounded  out  for  her  a  big  block  of  territory  on  the  South  Sea  Islands 
which  has  long  been  coveted  by  many  nations.  It  was  the  spice  islands  of 
the  East  Indies  which  Columbus  took  the  long  journey  in  search  of  when  he 
discovered  America.  Do  you  know  or  can  you  find  out  why  England  was 
anxious  to  get  control  of  Mesopotamia  and  of  Palestine  ? 

Here  then  is  a  table  showing  how  her  area  increased  by  great  chunks. 

Table  V. 

GROWTH  OF  THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


Per  cent  of  whole 
Square  Miles  world's  area 


1800  1,500,000  2 

1850  .4,500,000  8 

1900  11,300,000  20 

1919  13,700,000  25 


How  could  England  in  the  short  space  of  100  years  increase  her  mastery 
of  the  world's  population  from  2  to  25  per  cent?  How  could  she— isolated 
on  little  islands  with  only  moderately  fertile  soil  and  a  chmate  none  too  fav- 
orable— accomplish  such  a  feat? 


SHIPS!         SHIPS!  ships! 

In  ships  lies  the  secret.  England  early  recognized  the  value  of  ships.  She 
needed  ships  to  colonize,  and  then  she  needed  ships  to  protect  her  colonies. 
She  needed  colonies  because  she  needed  to  be  independent  of  other  nations. 
Never  for  a  single  year  must  the  little  island  depend  upon  any  other  country 
for  the  wheat,  corn,  and  other  staple  foodstuffs  that  her  people  must  have 
in  order  to  live.    In  case  of  war,  such  dependence  would  leave  her  helpless. 

By  the  way,  why  is  war  necessary?  Why  would  countries  have  to  be 
destroyed  and  millions  of  lives  lost  because  one  country  didn't  behave  as 
other  nations  felt  it  should  ?  Couldn't  an  isolated  country  which  depended 
upon  other  countries  for  food  and  clothing  necessities  be  compelled  to  do  the 
right  thing  without  going  to  war  at  all?  How?  Could  England?  Why? 
Could  she  if  she  didn't  have  her  colonies? 

Evidently  Great  Britain's  leaders  sensed  some  such  possibility  centuries 
ago  in  wishing  to  provide  a  constant  flow  of  foodstuffs  to  England  from  lands 
which  should  be  under  her  domination,  for  her  poHcy  of  colonization  and 
expansion  is  350  years  old. 

Do  you  remember  how  after  Columbus  discovered  America  in  1492  Spain 
and  F ranee  and  England  all  began  to  send  out  ships  searching  for  the  lands 
of  the  far  East  which  they  had  learned  were  very  valuable.  You  have  read 
the  story  of  Marco  Polo  and  his  travels  in  China  and  throughout  Asia ;  of 


40 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


how  the  Italians  and  the  Portuguese  and  the  Spanish  had  for  hundreds  of  years 
been  trying  to  find  the  way  to  India,  the  mystic  land  of  gold  and  treasure. 
We  have  not  time  now  to  recount  the  tales  of  adventure  and  daring  of  the 
sea-faring  men  who  sailed  out  on  the  unknown  seas  to  find  these  lands  all 
through  the  1500s  and  1600s— how  Spain  with  her  great  fleets  was  bringing 
the  wealth  of  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Mexico  and  South  America  back 
to  Spain,  how  Francis  Drake  and  others  of  the  English  pirates  were  robbing 
the  Spanish  gallions  of  their  stolen  gold,  how  the  Cabots  sailed  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  North  America,  and  how  Frobisher  was  trying  to  find  a  way 
through  the  ice  of  Labrador  and  the  Hudson  Bay  region,  how  Sir  Hugh 
Willoughby  and  Richard  Chancellor  were  ex- 
ploring the  Baltic  Sea  and  the  eastern  Arctic 
regions  and  sending  caravans  out  through  icy 
Russia  and  across  the  trackless  mountains  of 
Persia  and  Turkeystan,  You  have  probably 
read  many  of  these  interesting  stories  before 
this.  But  you  must  remember  that  while  all 
these  things  were  happening,  the  leaders  of 
England  were  also  driven  by  the  desire  for  the 
wealth  of  foreign  lands  and  as  far  back  as 
that  were  laying  the  foundation  for  the  greatest 
maritime  nation  of  the  world. 

How  well  they  have  accomplished  what 
they  set  out  to  do!   Study  Fig.  18. 

On  July  1,  1921  the  wjoM  had  54  million 
tons  of  shipping.^ 

Of  this  more  than  one-third  was  Great 
Britain's.  Think  of  it!  With  nearly  a  score 
of  really  important  countries  in  the  world,  one 
of  them,  a  little  island,  controls  over  one  third 
of  all  the  shipping. 

The  United  States  had  nearly  a  fourth  of 
the  tonnage  in  1921 — 12  million  tons  out  of  54. 
If  you  should  add  together  the  tonnage  of  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  what  would  1922. 
you  find.    What  fractional  part  of  the  world's  Fig.  18 

ships  do  these  two  English-speaking  nations  to- 
gether own  ?   How  does  the  tonnage  owned  by  Japan,  France,  Germany,  and 
"all  others"  compare  with  that  owned  by  Great  Britain? 

Do  you  see,  then,  that  after  England  started  her  policy  of  establishing 
colonies  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  during  the  1600s  she  had  to  have  ships  and 

1  The  freight  that  can  be  sent  in  a  ship  is  measured  in  tons  of  2000  pounds  each. 
We  speak  of  a  ship  or  of  a  freigrht  car  as  having  a  certain  tonnage.  A  large  ship 
today  is  one  that  will  carry  ir^  or  20  thousand  tons.  A  hundred  years  ago  a  ship  that 
would  carry  300  tons  was  considered  large. 


DlVlt)IOW  OF  WOR-LD5 
iHJPPlNG  TONN^GL 


FRAMCL 
5.040,000 


654,000 


ALL  OTHtR? 

15, 9  n .  000 


(From  The  Magazine  of  Wall  Street) 

1  From    Industrial  Digest^ 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  :     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


41 


ships  and  more  ships  to  keep  watch  over  them,  and  to  bring  their  produce 
back  to  the  mother  country?  Remember  that  from  1620,  when  the  Pilgrims 
landed  at  Plymouth,  until  1783  the  thirteen  English  colonies  on  the  Atlantic 
coastal  plain  in  America  were  a  part  of  these  colonial  possessions ;  they  were 
the  beginning  of  the  great  nation  of  over  100  million  people  which  is  now 
the  United  States  and  which  rivals  the  mother  country  itself  in  territory  and 
in  shiping.  After  England  lost  her  thirteen  colonies  and  with  them  the  rest 
of  that  whole  western  country  clear  through  to  the  Pacific  which  gradually 
became  a  part  of  the  United  States,  she  began  in  earnest  the  policy  of  enlarg- 
ing her  possessions  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Had  you  realized  that  we 
were  once  a  part  of  the  great  British  Empire? 

WHAT  ARE  THE  CHIEF  SHIPPING  ROUTES  OF  THE  WORLD  TODAY? 

The  map  of  Fig.  19  answers  the  question.  How  well  it  confirms  what 
we  learned  from  Fig.  18  of  the  shipping  tonnage  of  the  world.  Do  you  see 
the  great  band  of  trade  tying  England  and  the  United  States  together?  The 
widths  of  the  lines  and  the  bands  are  proportional  to  the  tons  of  freight  actu- 
ally carried.  Notice  how  the  bands  encircle  England,  leading  into  her  vari- 
ous ports — London,  Liverpool,  Bristol,  Southampton,  Glasgow  in  the  far 
north  in  Scotland.  Can  you  not  see  great  cities  growing  up  as  a  result  of  such 
immense  fleets  of  sailing  vessels  and  steamboats  going  back  and  forth  between 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  America  and  England?  Study  the  map  to  see  what 
ports  of  America  and  England  these  ships  sail  from  for  other  ports  of  the 
world.  What  are  the  largest  ports  of  the  United  States?  On  which  coast 
are  most  of  them  situated  ? 

We  said  a  few  pages  back  that  England's  possessions  all  had  to  be  tied  to 
the  mother  country  by  ocean  transportation.  Trace  the  lines  that  start  from 
England.  Where  do  they  go  ?  The  heaviest  one,  of  course,  goes  to  America. 
Notice  that  the  next  heaviest  one  is  that  which  shows  the  path  of  shipping 
through  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  from  there  down  through  the  Red  Sea  into 
the  Indian  Ocean  down  the  southeastern  coast  of  Africa,  over  between  the 
mainland  of  Asia  and  the  islands  of  Samatra,  Java,  Borneo,  the  Phillippines, 
up  to  the  great  Pacific  Ocean  ports  of  Hong  Kong,  Shanghai,  and  Yokahama. 
Turn  back  to  Fig.  13  and  see  whether  there  are  lines  from  England  to  all 
her  possessions.  Does  a  heavy  one  branch  off  and  go  to  India?  Is  there  one 
to  Australia  ?  to  New  Zealand  ?  to  Canada  ?  And  what  about  her  domain 
in  Africa?  Notice  the  band  that  takes  English  coal  to  Argentina  and  other 
ports  in  South  America  from  where  it  returns  with  cargoes  of  wheat,  wool, 
a^d,  hidesi. 

So  we  have  come  upon  a  number  of  important  facts:  first,  that  the  great 


r  shipping  routes  of  the  world  revolve  about  the  United  States  and  England  ; 
second,  that  the  location  of  England's  colonies  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


e  trade  routes  of  the  world ;  third,  that  there  must  be  some  important  rela- 
tion between  the  shipping  routes  of  the  world  and  the  distribution  of  popu- 
lation. 


See  if  you  can  f^nd  out  what  the  relation  between  shipping  routes  and 
distribution  of  population  is.  Turn  back  to  the  population  map,  Fig.  3. 
Study  the  two  maps  together. 

How  do  you  think  the  great  shipping  routes  of  the  world  depend  upon 
where  England's  colonies  are?  Could  you  prove  to  a  stranger  that  they  do 
depend  upon  the  location  of  the  colonies? 

 F={owman:  "The  New  World";  copyright  World  Book  Co.,  Yonkers.  N.  Y. 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  I     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


43 


Turn  again  to  Fig.  13,  and  notice  the  dates  on  the  different  islands  scat- 
tered over  the  world  which  have  become  a  part  of  the  British  Empire.  Do 
you  see  that  most  of  these  outposts  of  empire  have  been. a,eqi^i red  since  1800 — 
yes,  since  1875?  When  did  England  secure  Aden?  ^  When  was  the  Suez 
Canal  constructed  ?  England  controls  that  too.  Follow  the  line  that  goes 
through  the  Mediterranean  to  the  very  eastern  point  of  it  and  then  appears 
to  stop.  It  seems  to  go  under  ground  and  then  to  come  out  a  little  farther 
south  and  run  down  into  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  there  dividing 
into  two  main  strands — one  going  eastward  toward  India  and  China  and 
the  other  ploughing  down  the  east  coast  of  Africa. 

How  do  you  think  it  happens  that  the  band  of  freight  is  just  as  heavy 
over  that  eastern  region  as  it  is  through  the  Mediterranean?  Why,  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  the  same  traffic.  What  appears  on  the  map  to  be  a  distinct 
break  is  merely  the  place  where  men  have  cut  a  great  ditch  to  connect  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  Red  Sea.    This  is  the  Suez  Canal. 

In  your  geography  turn  to  a  map  which  shows  Africa  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Red  Seas.  Do  you  see  where  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  joins  Asia 
with  Africa  ?  How  far  do  you  think  it  is  across  the  Isthmus  ?  What  is  your 
estimate  of  the  number  of  miles  ?  Why  do  you  think  England  was  willing  to 
go  to  the  expense  of  building  a  great  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez? 

Distances 

From  England  to  Cape  Town   6080  miles 

From  Cape  Town  to  Australia   6077  miles 

12157  miles 

From  England  via  Suez  Canal  to  Australia.  .  .   11634  miles 

523  miles 

Can  you  see  from  this  table  one  reason  why  England  was  anxious  to 
have  the  Suez  Canal  built?  What  is  the  greatest  advantage  to  her?  The 
523  miles  is  the  distance  saved  by  every  English  ship  that  goes  to  Australia. 
On  a  round  trip  you  see  1046  miles  of  travel  are  saved.  What  does  this 
mean?  Besides  time  in  travelling,  what  other  saving  in  expense  is  there? 
What  about  the  shorter  trips?  Does  the  Canal  save  any  distance  in  going  to 
India?    to  Aden?    to  Singapore? 

Do  you  see  now  how  important  the  Suez  Canal  is  to  England's  ocean 
transportation?  Remember  that  the  Suez  Canal  was  not  constructed  until 
1869;  it  has  come  only  with  the  development  of  steamships  in  the  past  half 
century,  but  it  has  been  a  great  commercial  success  from  the  first.  In  1870 
only  486  vessels  went  through  it.  In  1900,  3441  made  the  trip,  and  by  1912 
the  number  had  increased  to  5373.  From  1870  to  1912,  in  other  words,  the 
tonnage  on  which  tolls  were  collected  (you  see  they  charged  each  ship  a  toll 


44 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


fee  to.  go  through  the  Canal)  grew  from  437,000  tons  to  20,275,000  tons, 
and  it  has  been  increasing  ever  since.  The  Company  which  built  the  Canal 
and  still  owns  it  makes  its  money  principally  out  of  the  toll  which  is  charged 
on  every  ton  that  goes  through.  The  government  of  England  was  not  so 
much  concerned  in  the  profit  to  be  made  from  the  Canal  as  it  was  in  having 
its  rights  preserved  so  that  its  ships  could  always  go  through  it.  So  in  1875 
the  British  government  through  its  great  leader,  Lord  Beaconsfield,  pur- 
chased 176,602  shares  from  the  ruler  of  Egypt  who  owned  them  at  that  time. 
In  1915  there  were  372,746  shares  of  stock  of  the  Suez  Canal  Company  in 
circulation.  So  you  see  the  English  government  does  not  actually  own  more 
than  half  of  the  shares  which  it  would  need  to  own  tO  absolutely  dictate  the 
policies  of  the  company.  Yet  do  you  see  also  that  England  occupies  the  fore- 
most position  in  the  affairs  of  the  Suez  Canal? 

It  is  interesting,  however,  that  the  Suez  Canal  like  our  own  Panama  , 
Canal  is  an  international  waterway.  When  the  company  received  its  con- 
cession from,  the  Egyptian  government  to  build  a  canal  at  this  place,  it  was 
stipulated  that  the  "canal  shall  be  opened  to  all  as  a  neutral  highway  without 
any  exclusive  distinction  or  preference  of  persons  or  nationalities."  So  m 
1888  at  a  convention  held  by  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Austria,  Spain,  France, 
Italy,  the  Netherlands,  Russia,  and  Turkey,  it  was  agreed  that  the  canal 
should  "always  be  free  and  open  in  times  of  war  as  in  times  of  peace  to  every 
vessel  of  commerce  or  of  war  without  distinction  of  flag."  Great  Britam 
herself  was  largely  responsible  for  having  this  agreement  signed  by  these 
nations.  Do  you  see  how  very  important  it  has  been  for  England  to  either 
control  this  great  waterway  so  far  from  the  home  country  or  at  least  to  see 
to  it  that  it  was  open  to  her  ships?  The  very  security  of  England  and  her 
possessions  has  rested  upon  waterways  and  ships. 

From  the  map  of  Fig.  19,  which  country  would  you  judge  uses  the  Suez 
Canal  most  ? 

Out  of  a  total  of  18  million  tons  which  went  through  the  Suez  Canal  in 
191 1  England  owned  nearly  half.  Germany  was  second  with  only  one-fourth 
as  much  as  England,  France  third,  and  the  United  States  fourth. 

To  the  Teacher:  At  this  point  certain  fundamental 
facts  of  location  should  be  tested  and  learned.  Use  blank 
mimeographed  maps  of  the  world.  Four  types  of  ex- 
ercise are  provided  for  (1)  the  location  of  England's 
colonies,  (2)  the  location  of  important  shipping  centers 
of  the  world  which  are  connected  to  England's  trade, 
(3)  the  ten  most  important  shipping  routes  of  the  world, 
emphasizing  England's  strategic  position. 

EXERCISE 

Now  locate  the  Panama  Canal,  and  write  in  your  notebook  a  summary 
ot  facts  similar  to  those  we  have  been  talking  about  with  regard  to  the  Suez 
Canal.    When  was  it  built?    Who  owns  it?    What  is  the  amount  of  ton- 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  I     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


45 


nage  that  passes  through  it?  What  country  uses  it  most?  Do  you  think 
that  in  time  to  come  trade  by  this  route  will  exceed  the  trade  by  way  of  the 
Suez?  Why?  Look  in  your  geography  and  get  all  the  information  you  can 
about  the  Panama  Canal.  Use  a  World  Almanac  or  Statesman's  Y ear- 
Book  for  the  figures  you  need,  and  be  able  to  make  a  complete  report  on  this 
subject  to  the  class. 


Growth  of  Size  of  Ocean  Vessels  in  One  Hundred  Years 


The  smallest  vessel  in  the  group  is  the  Dreadnaught,  a  clipper  ship  dating 
from  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Then  follow  the  Borussia,  a  side 
wheeler;  the  Britannia,  Arizona,  Oceanic,  first  greyhounds,  and  the  Vaterland. 

Fig.  201 

FROM  SAILING  VESSELS  TO  STEAMSHIPS 

In  the  past  fifty  years  shipping  has  almost  entirely  changed  from  sailing 
vessels  to  steamships.  The  first  really  great  steamships  began  to  plow  the 
oceans  about  1835.  From  that  time  until  now  sails  have  rapidly  given  way 
to  steam  engines  as  the  means  of  propelling  ocean-going  vessels. 


In  1807  Robert  Fulton  ran  the  Clermont  up  the  Hudson  River  from  New 
York  City  to  Albany. 

Fig.  21  2 


Do  you  want  to  see  a  moving  picture  of  the  progress  of  ocean  vessels  in 
one  hundred  years?  Look  at  Fig.  20.  It  shows  how  our  ocean-going  ships 
have  grown  from  the  little  dreadnaught  or  clipper  ship  at  the  beginning  of 

1  Johnston  E.  R. :  "Ocean  Transportation" 

2  Dunbar,  S. :  "A  History  of  Travel  in  America."  Bobbs-Merrill  Co.,  Indianapolis. 


46 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


the  1800s  to  the  great  German  Vaterland  and,  54,282  tons  in  weight.  This  is 
now  owned  by  the  United  States  and  is  called  the  Leviathan.  It  is  907  feet 
long  and  has  a  crew  of  1234  men. 

And  only  a  hundred  years  ago,  in  1807,  the  first  commercially  successful 
river  steamboat  was  run  on  the  Hudson  River.    Fig.  21  shows  how  it  looked. 

Earlier  than  this  John  Fitch  and  other  inventors  had  worked  for  twenty 
years  trying  to  find  a  way  to  propel  boats  by  paddles  which  could  be  operated 
by  steam  engine,  but  it  was  not  until  thirty  years  after  the  Clermont's  first 
trip  that  people  were  sure  the  steamboat  could  be  used  with  commercial  suc- 
cess in  crossing  the  ocean.  In  1819  the  Savannah,  a  sailing  packet  of  380 
tons,  was  equipped  with  an  engine  and  paddle  wheels  and  actually  crossed 
the  Atlantic  from  Savannah,  Georgia  to  Liverpool  in  25  days;  but  in  only 
18  days  out  of  the  25  could  her  engine  be  used.  Even  in  1819  people  dared 
not  go  out  on  the  ocean  without  sails.  It  was  not  until  1833  that  a  vessel 
crossed  the  ocean  all  the  way  under  steam  power.  This  was  the  Royal 
fVilliam  and  made  the  trip  from  Quebec. 


A  Clipper  Ship 
Fig.  22  1 


Up  to  1840  the  clipper  ships,  or  so-called  square-rigged  vessels,  were  the 
great  ocean-going  freighters.  Fig.  22  shows  the  largest  clipper  ship  ever 
constructed. 

This  was  called  The  Great  Republic.  Even  today  it  would  be  regarded 
as  a  large  vessel.  It  was  335  feet  long,  53  feet  wide,  and  38  feet  deep,  had 
four  decks,  four  masts,  and  carried  4555  tons  of  freight. 

But  after  1840  the  importance  of  the  sailing  vessel  in  ocean-going  traffic 
decreased  rapidly.  By  1914  seventy-one  per  cent  of  all  the  American  vessels 
engaged  in  foreign  trade  were  steamships.  The  greatest  change  came  be- 
tween 1900  and  1914.  Not  until  1893  were  there  more  steamers  in  the 
world  than  there  were  sailing  vessels,  at  least  according  to  the  freight  that 
they  could  carry.    From  1893  to  1916  the  steam  tonnage  had  increased  100 

1  Johnston,  10.  U.;  "Ocean  Transportation." 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  :     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


47 


per  cent  while  the  sail  tonnage  had  actually  decreased.  At  the  present  time 
ninety  per  cent  of  the  shipping  of  the  whole  world  is  done  in  vessels  run  by 
steam  power, 

STEAMSHIPS  MUST  HAVE  COALING  STATIONS 

Do  you  see  now  that  any  country  like  England  or  America  which  has 
many  ships  must  also  have  places  scattered  about  through  the  different  oceans 
where  her  ships  can  put  into  land  and  get  supplies  of  fuel  ?  Steamships  until 
very  recently — some  of  them  burn  oil  now —  have  always  burned  coal,  and 
naturally  England's  leaders  quickly  saw  that  they  must  have  supplies  of  coal 
on  hand  in  the  South  Pacific,  in  the  South  Atlantic,  near  Central  America, 
in  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  near  Australia.  Otherwise  their 
\essels  would  run  short  of  fuel  and  get  stranded  in  mid-ocean,  for  you  see 
one  vessel  could  not  carry  enough  coal  to  last  the  wliole  trip.  If  it  did,  there 
would  be  no  space  left  for  freight.  So  during  Cr'^  1800s  as  their  sailing 
vessels  were  gradually  replaced  by  steam  vessels,  Ilngland's  leaders  planned 
very  carefully  ways  of  securing  control  of  islands  and  important  points  scat- 
tered about  at  proper  places  over  the  earth,  not  too  far  apart. 

Of  course  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  the  world's  shipping  routes  seem 
to  revolve  so  much  about  England  is  her  excellent  location.  She  stands  right 
in  the  center  of  the  path  where  trade  must  go  in  order  to  reach  the  northern 
European  countries.  Ships  cannot  reach  France,  Belgium,  Holland.  Den- 
mark. Sweden,  Norway,  or  Germany  without  passing  close  to  England's 
ports.  With  the  great  producing  and  manufacturing  continent  of  Europe 
so  near,  her  happy  location  off  its  western  coast  has  had  much  to  do  with 
England's  becoming  one  of  the  great  industrial  powers  of  the  world.  We 
should  not  forget  this  fact  of  favorable  location  in  thinking  about  England's 
supremacy  in  industry  and  shipping.  Now  turn  to  Fig.  13  again  and  see 
how  well  she  is  provided  for  in  the  way  of  coaling  stations. 

Do  you  see  how' Great  Britain  has  carefully  planned  year  by  year  that  her 
colonies  as  they  grow  shall  be  tied  closer  and  closer  together,  and  do  you  see 
how  the  "tie  that  binds"  is  ships — and  bases  where  the  ships  can  get  coal  and 
oil  to  burn  in  their  engines? 

^  !         1       C   -^vjj  EXERCISE 

1.    Do  you  know  where  the  large  shipping  centers  of  the  world  are  located? 

On  the  wall  map  in  your  class  room  see  if  you  can  locate  each  of  the 
following  great  centers _of  trade:  London,  New  York,  Hongkong,  Bombay, 
Melbourne,  Wellington,  Liverpool,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Buenos  Aires,Boston, 
Sydney,  Halifax,  Gibraltar,  Queenstown,  Port  Said,  Calcutta,  Cape  Town, 
Aden,  Philadelphia,  Osaka,  Shanghai,  Panama,  Galveston,  Yokahama,  San 
Francisco,  Naples,  Honolulu,  Manilla,  Seattle,  Marseilles,  Constantinople, 
Brest,  Singapore. 


48 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


On  a  blank  world  map  letter  in  at  the  exact  locations  each  of  the  fore- 
going shipping  centers. 

Exchange  papers  with  a  neighbor.  Open  your  geography  to  a  map  of 
Europe.  Now  correct  your  neighbor's  map  by  comparing  his  or  her  work 
with  the  geography  map,  and  on  the  left  margin  write  the  name  of  each  port 
which  was  located  incorrectly.  The  teacher  will  pass  around  and  check  up 
the  correction  of  the  maps.  After  she  has  done  this,  return  the  paper  to  the 
one  who  made  it. 

As  a  result  of  this  test,  you  now  know  which  ports  you  need  to  study  in 
order  to  be  able  to  place  all  of  them  accurately.  How  many  got  all  right? 
Those  who  located  all  the  ports  correctly  do  not  need  to  do  the  next  exercise ; 
they  can  spend  their  time  on  other  work. 

First  step:  Open  your  geography  to  the  same  map  as  before.  Study 
very  carefully  the  location  of  the  ports  you  missed.  Try  to  fix  each  one  in 
your  mind  with  relation  to  other  places — bodies  of  water  or  other  ports.  See 
what  direction  it  is  and  about  how  far  from  some  place  of  which  you  know 
the  location. 

Second  step :    Now  close  your  eyes  and  try  to  see  its  position. 

Third  step :  Open  your  eyes  and  see  if  your  mind-picture  was  right.  If 
not,  close  your  eyes  again.  See  if  it  is  clearer  than  before.  Look  again  at 
the  map  and  repeat  the  process  until  you  are  sure  you  can  locate  the  port 
accurately. 

Fourth  step:  Close  the  geography,  and  on  the  clean  mimeographed  map 
write  down  the  name  of  the  port  in  its  proper  place.  When  you  have  finished, 
compare  your  work  with  the  geography  map.  If  it  is  incorrect  this  time,  you 
must  go  through  the  while  process  again,  and  again,  until  you  succeed  in  get- 
ting it  right. 

Fifth  step:    Do  this  for  all  the  ports  you  missed  in  your  test. 

Sixth  step:  Bind  the  two  test  maps  into  your  notebook  for  safekeeping.. 
In  about  a  week  we  will  repeat  this  test  to  see  if  you  can  remember  all  the 
ports  correctly. 

2.    The  Chief  Shipping  Routes  of  the  World. 

Using  the  same  world  map  on  which  you  have  located  the  chief  ports, 
trace  carefully  the  ten  most  important  shipping  routes  of  the  world.  You 
will  find  suggestions  in  Fig.  19.    Try  to  invent  new  ways  of  showing  where- 
the  heaviest  freight  shipping  routes  are. 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  :     COLONIES  AND  SHIPS 


49 


DEBATE 

DEBATE  ON  THE  QUESTION:  RESOLVED  THAT  THE  UNITED  STATES  WOULD 
SUFFER  MORE  THAN  ENGLAND  IF  OTHER  COUNTRIES  REFUSED  TO  TRADE 

WITH  HER. 

To  the  Teacher:  Now  that  the  essential  facts  have 
been  reviewed  concerning  the  needs  and  resources  of  the 
United  States  and  England,  we  suggest  that  one  or  two 
class  exercises  be  spent  on  a  debate  on  the  question: 
Resolved,  that  the  United  States  ivould  suffer  more  than 
the  British  Isles  if  other  nations  should  refuse  to  trade 
<with  her.  Perhaps  it  would  be  wise  to  spend  one  day  in 
discussing  with  the  class  what  the  question  involves,  in 
assigning  parts  of  the  work  of  collecting  facts  and  or- 
ganizing them,  and  in  preparing  the  presentation.  We  , 
suggest  that  you  use  as  large  a  number  of  the  pupils  in 
the  class  as  possible.  Have  them  select  leaders  and 
choose  the  respective  teams.  So  far  as  possible  let  the 
leaders  and  the  teams  decide  for  themselves  how  the 
work  will  be  divided  up.  We  suggest  that  you  have  a 
series  of  two-minute  talks  and  a  rebuttal  from  one  or 
two  leaders  on  each  side,  and  perhaps  a  longer  rebuttal 
from  one  or  two  other  leaders  on  each  side.  It  might 
be  wise  to  use  certain  members  of  the  class  to  act  as 
judges.  These  are  suggestions  to  aid  you  in  organizing 
the  debate. 


111.    RUSSIA,  A  WORLD  POWER— HER  TOWNS  AND  CITIES 

STARVING! 


Do  you  know  which  country  that  fought  against  Germany  in  the  World 
War  was  the  largest ?  Was  it  England ?  the  United  States?  France?  Italy? 
Serbia?  Does  it  surprise  you  to  be  told  that  it  was  no  one  of  these?  Russia 
was  the  largest  country,  and  she  threw  more  millions  of  men  onto  a  long 
2000-mile  battle-front  than  any  other  country  on  either  side. 

Russia — what  does  the  word  mean  to  you  ?  Does  it  mean  a  cold,  bleak, 
mysterious  far-away  land  ?    Do  you  think  of  Siberia  with  its  exiles  and  icy 


^l^urope's.  Eminent  Domain 
Fig.  23  1 

fields,  and  the  terrible  hardships  of  its  prisons  and  mines  that  we  read  about 
in  stories  of  "darkest  Russia"?  Or,  do  you  think  of  the  dashing  Cossacks 
who  have  become  famous  in  military  history  for  their  striking  costumes  and 
reckless  daring?  Do  you  think  of  imperial  rulers  and  Tsars?  What  does 
Russia  mean  to  you  ? 

It  is  very  important  to  answer  these  questions  for  a  number  of  reasons, 
i^^or  one,  Russia  was  regarded  as  Germany's  most  important  enemy  in  1914. 
Her  territory  was  broader  than  that  of  any  imperial  country  of  the  world. 

By  peimiission  of  publishers, 


1  From  Gibbons,  J  I.  A..  "The  New  Map  of  Asia' 
The  C'entury  Co. 


RUSSIA:     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  A  WORLD  POWER 


51 


What  startling  proof  of  this  statement  one  finds  in  Fig.  23 !  Russia,  we 
must  remember,  consists  of  two  parts :  the  smaller  part — about  two  thirds  as 
large  as  the  United  States— is  in  Europe;  by  far  the  larger  part  lies  in  far-off 
Asia.  The  map  shows  that  the  Asiatic  part  of  Russia  is  more  than  twice  as 
large  as  the  European  part.  At  one  time,  when  Russia  controlled  Manchuria 
and  Kamchatka  it  was  practically  three  times  as  large.  What  a  stupendous 
stretch  of  territory  to  be  acquired  by  a  single  nation !  On  the  wall  map  of 
the  world  compare  the  size  of  Russia  with  that  of  the  United  States.  Do 
you  agree  with  the  statement  that  was  made  about  the  sizes  of  these  two 
countries?  Find  China  on  the  map  of  Asia.  It  includes  Mongolia,  Tibet, 
and  Chinese  Turkestan.  Which  is  larger,  Russian  Asia  or  Chinese  Asia? 
Do  you  see  what  a  tremendous  country  Russia  is?  We  will  learn  as  we  go 
oti  with  our  study  of  Russia,  how  a  great  deal  of  this  Asiatic  Russia  has  been 
secured  by  her  since  1800,  for  Russia  like  England  was  imperial.  She  too 
became  master  of  more  and  more  land,  and  gradually  she  spread  through 
eastern  Europe  until  she  extended  from  the  cold  Baltic  Sea  on  the  north  to 
the  warm  Black  and  Caspian  Seas  on  the  south.  Through  the  thousand  years 
of  time  from  the  founding  of  Russia  to  1800,  ruler  after  ruler  was  endeav- 
oring to  make  a  unified  European  empire  with  all  the  power  centralized  at 
Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg. 

But  after  1800,  as  England  and  France  and  other  nations  extended  their 
power  into  other  lands— Asia,  Africa,  South  America— Russia  started  on  a 
sensational  march  across  the  cold  northland  of  Asia,  and  by  the  time  the 
World  War  opened,  the  territory  of  Russia  extended  continuously  more  miles 
than  that  of  any  other  nation  in  the  world.  In  this  way  she  was  very  dif- 
ferent from  England  with  her  central  power  located  on  an  island  thousands 
of  miles  from  her  colonies  and  dependencies— South  Africa,  Australia, 
India,  and  the  others. 

Russia's  people 

What  about  Russia's  people?  Were  there  many  in  this  huge  country? 
How  many  do  you  guess?  30  million  like  England?  60  million  like  Ger- 
many? Or  100  million  like  America?  No,  even  more  than  any  of  these. 
China  and  India  were  the  only  countries  in  1914  that  had  a  larger  popula- 
tion than  Russia,  for  she  had  140  million  people. 

Study  the  population  map  of  Fig.  3.  Glance  again  at  heavily  dotted 
England  and  her  dependency  India,  and  at  the  very  densely  populated  region 
of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States.  How  does  Russia  compare  ?  What 
does  the  Russian  part  of  this  population  map  tell  you  ?  Are  people  huddled 
together  as  they  are  in  England,  in  India,  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
Massachusetts?  The  first  bar  graph  below  the  map  shows  how  many  people 
are  living  per  square  mile  in  different  countries.    How  much  more  crowded 


52 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


are  the  people  generally  in  Russia  than  in  the  United  States?  Recall  what 
we  found  about  the  comparative  sizes  of  the  two  countries.  How  much 
more  crowded  are  China  and  India  than  Russia?    the  United  States? 

HOW  DOES  RUSSIA  FEED  HER  MILLIONS? 

In  studying  England,  did  we  find  that  if  the  other  nations  declared  a 
trade  embargo  against  her  they  could  starve  her?  Did  we  find  that  the 
United  States  could  be  starved  in  such  fashion  ?  What  about  this  mammoth 
Russia  extending  over  two  continents,  with  more  people  than  any  other 
European  nation  ?  If  all  the  countries  of  the  world  should  refuse  to  trade 
with  her,  could  they  starve  her?  You  know  now  from  having  studied  the 
various  food  maps  how  this  important  question  can  be  answered.  Turn  back 
over  them  from  one  to  another,  and  try  to  decide  definitely  what  kinds  of 
food  Russia  raises  most  of.  The  United  States  we  found  did  not  specialize 
in  any  one  food.  Wheat,  corn,  cattle — with  these  great  staples  America 
amply  provides  herself.  Did  we  find  this  was  true  about  England  ?  No,  far 
from  it.  Is  it  true  of  Russia?  Is  she  a  wheat-producing  country?  How 
does  she  rank  with  the  other  countries  of  the  world  in  the  amount  of  wheat 
she  raises?  Do  you  recall  that  the  United  States  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant wheat  countries?    Is  Russia  more  important ? 

Study  the  maps  which  show  to  what  extent  Russia  raises  cot-n,  potatoes, 
and  cattle — Figs.  6,  7,  9.  Which  of  these  three  foods  would  you  say  Russia 
depended  on  most?  Why  do  we  speak  of  cattle  as  a  food?  Fig.  7  shows 
us  some  startling  things  about  Russia  as  a  potato-raising  country.  Would 
you  have  expected  to  find  Russia  raising  so  many  more  potatoes  than  the 
United  States?  No  matter  where  one  goes  in  America  he  finds  potatoes — 
white  potatoes  and  sweet  potatoes — on  the  tables  of  working  man  and  farmer, 
banker,  merchant,  manufacturer.  Apparently  Russia  too  is  a  great  potato 
country.  Would  you  say  the  same  of  Russia  as  regards  corn  ?  How  about 
cattle?    How  do  Russia  and  the  United  States  compare  in  this  respect? 

Table  VI. 

Grain  Exports  from  European  Russia  in  1914. 


Millions 

Millions 

of 

of 

poods  ' 

■oubles  - 

Wheat 

+7.1 

163.9 

Rye 

23.3 

19.3 

Barley 

120.6 

94.4 

Oats 

16.8 

14.1 

Maize 

17.4 

12.6 

Other 

grain  products 

49.4 

45.3 

Total 

274.6 

349.6 

'  .V  pood  is  a  measure  of  weiRl^l  equal  to  about  4  0  pounds, 
rouble  is  a  little  leas  than  50  cents  in  our  money. 


RUSSIA:     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  A  WORLD  POWER 


53 


All  of  these  maps  show  conditions  in  Russia  as  they  were  from  1911  to 
1913.  From  your  map  studies  are  you  ready  now  to  answer  the  question, 
was  Russia  self-sufficient  in  those  years?  Did  she  stand  on  her  own  feet? 
Did  she  depend  on  others  for  food?  If  you  need  further  help,  Table  VI  will 
show  you  to  what  extent  Russia  actually  exported  food  to  other  countries. 

Fig.  5  supplies  us  with  still  more  evidence  concerning  this  matter  for 
the  great  staple  foodstuff,  wheat.  It  compares  the  amount  of  wheat  that 
Russia  produced  with  the  amount  that  she  consumed.  Do  you  notice  that 
the  bars  on  this  graph  are  laid  off  to  show  how  many  bushels  per  person  she 
produced  and  how  many  she  consumed  ?  Does  this  help  you  to  answer  the 
question  whether  Russia  raised  as  much  wheat  as  she  needed  for  her  own 
people?  It  is  also  important  to  notice  whether  Russia  really  was  a  great 
wheat-using  country.  How  does  she  compare  with  the  United  States?  with 
Canada? 

What  a  fine  feeling  the  rulers  of  Russia  must  have  had  in  the  years  of 
1911,  1912,  and  1913  before  the  World  War  when  they  realized  that  they 
were  raising  more  foodstuffs  than  their  people  used  at  home.  She  was  an 
exporting  country  shipping  food  to  other  lands  for  which  they  were  receiving 
gold  in  return. 

RUSSIA— FARMER,  NOT  MANUFACTURER 

Do  you  remember  what  we  found  out  about  England — that  she  was  a 
great  manufacturing  nation  and  that  only  six  per  cent  of  her  whole  popula- 
tion were  farmers  ?  From  what  you  have  learned  about  Russia  so  far,  would 
you  think  that  she  too  was  a  manufacturing  nation,  or  would  you  imagine 
that  most  of  her  people  were  farmers?    What  information  do  you  get  from 


Table  VII. 


Per  cent  of  pop- 

ulation engaged 

Countries 

in  argiculture 

Jugo-Slavia 

88 

Russia 

72 

France 

40 

Italy 

35 

England 

6 

Think  of  it!  Almost  three-fourths  of  more  than  140  million  people  in 
Russia  tilling  the  soil!  What  do  you  suppose  the  other  28  per  cent  were 
doing  in  those  years  about  which  we  have  been  talking?  When  Russia  comes 
to  your  mind,  is  it  easy  to  think  of  many  people  living  in  towns  and  cities  as 
they  are  in  America  or  in  England  ?  We  must  get  used  to  the  idea,  however, 
that  long  before  America  was  even  discovered,  the  people  of  the  older  coun- 
tries of  the  world — such  as  China,  India,  Russia,  Germany,  England,  France 


54 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


—had  begun  to  live  in  cities.  Russia  has  cities  that  are  several  hundred 
years  old.  It  is  believed  that  there  were  rather  fine  Chinese  cities  2000 
years  ago;  so  you  will  not  be  surprised  to  find  that  Russia  has  large  cities. 

Russia's  towns  and  cities 

Turn  to  a  political  map  and  locate  each  of  the  following  cities:  Moscow, 
Kiev,  Petersburg,  Odessa,  Baku,  Riga,  and  be  ready  to  point  these  out  to  the 
class  on  a  wall  map.  In  the  back  of  your  geography  you  will  find  given  the 
population  of  each  of  the  cities  of  Russia  along  with  the  figures  for  the  other 
countries  of  the  world.  Write  in  your  notebook  the  population  of  each  of 
these  cities.  When  you  have  done  this,  write  a  list  of  the  cities  of  Russia 
which  are  over  100,000  in  population.  How  many  such  cities  did  you  find? 
More  than  the  six  which  we  have  just  named?  ten?  twenty?  Are  you  aston- 
ished to  find  how  many  cities  there  are  in  this  far-away  country  of  eastern 
Europe  that  we  in  America  would  regard  as  large  ones? 

Think  of  the  city  of  Petersburg  with  more  than  2  million  people!  What 
cities  in  this  country  have  more  than  2  million  people?  What  are  they? 
Have  you  been  in  either  of  them?  Do  you  know  how  they  spread  out  for 
miles  and  miles  with  broad  paved  streets  and  enormous  office  buildings  and 
manufacturing  plants,  how  hundreds  of  thousands  of  automobiles  roll  rap- 
idly over  their  pavements?  Have  you  been  in  the  bustling  department  stores, 
in  the  great  banks  of  America's  largest  and  finest  cities? 

Well,  if  you  have,  you  know  much  of  what  life  was  like  in  some  of  the 
best  of  Russian  cities  before  the  war— in  Petersburg  and  Moscow,  for 
instance.  Petersburg  was  a  great  city  created  by  one  of  Russia's  rulers, 
Peter  the  Great,  who  lived  about  1700.  Because  of  a  whim  he  had,  he 
built  it  in  a  large  swampy  region  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva  River.  The 
land  here  was  so  marshy  that  it  all  had  to  be  filled  in  in  order  to  build  a  city 
at  all.  Petersburg  was  a  place  of  beautiful  palaces,  of  very  broad  thorough- 
fares with  fine  shade  trees  bordering  their  sides.  The  streets  were  lined  with 
busy  shops,  and  traffic  bustled  over  them  as  it  does  over  our  city  streets.  On 
the  outskirts  there  were  factories  and  thousands  of  homes  to  house  the  in- 
dustrial people  of  the  place. 

Peter  the  Great  was  what  we  call  a  very  "progressive"  person.  In  order 
to  make  his  country  a  great  nation,  he  went  out  on  long  journeys  to  other 
lands  to  get  ideas  for  improving  his  own  country.  Then  when  he  came  back 
he  would  set  new  fashions  and  make  laws  so  that  the  people  had  to  follow 
them.  One  of  the  customs  of  the  men  was  to  wear  long  beards  that  hung 
down  over  their  bosoms,  and  though  all  but  the  priests  wore  their  hair  very 
short  they  took  great  care  of  their  beards  and  were  very  proud  of  them. 
Peter,  in  order  to  change  this  custom,  made  a  law  that  only  priests  and 
peasants  could  wear  beards,  and  all  others  had  to  pay  a  tax  of  100  roubles 
a  year  for  the  privilege  of  wearing  one.    Officials  were  stationed  at  the  gates 


RUSSIA  :     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  A  WORLD  POWER 


55 


of  the  towns  to  collect  the  tax.  The  people  thought  this  was  a  sin,  and  many 
old  Russians  w^ho  shaved  their  beards  saved  them  preciously  in  order  to  have 
them  placed  in  their  coffins,  for  they  feared  that  they  wouldn't  be  allowed  to 
enter  heaven  without  them. 

For  the  women  he  insisted  upon  English  dress.  He  decided  that  w^omen 
as  well  as  men  should  be  invited  to  entertainments,  such  as  weddings  and 
banquets,  the  same  as  in  England  and  Holland,  and  that  all  these  entertain- 
ments should  end  with  concerts  and  dances.  But  only  those  should  be  ad- 
mitted who  were  dressed  in  English  costumes. 

Peter  extended  his  ideas  to  education  and  to  making  beautiful  cities, 
especially  to  making  Petersburg  a  beautiful  place.  Now  hundreds  of  years 
later,  it  is  a  city  of  magnificent  buildings.  How  attractive  it  is  shown  to  be 
in  the  picture  of  Fig.  24,  and  how  much  in  fact  like  the  cities  of  other 
modern  nations. 


A  scene  in  Petersburg 
Fig.  24 1 


We  should  not  carry  away  the  idea,  however,  that  Russia  has  only  one 
or  two  large  cities.  You  have  already  discovered  that  she  has  22  cities,  each 
of  more  than  100,000  people.  Now  turn  back  again  to  the  political  map  of 
Russia  and  compare  it  with  one  of  the  United  States.  Do  you  notice  how 
differently  situated  the  towns  and  cities  of  Russia  are  from  those  in  the 
United  States?  The  United  States  seems  to  have  almost  a  continuous  web 
of  little  communities  scattered  from  the  Atlantic  plain  clear  to  the  Middle 
West.  From  the  Mississippi  west  to  the  Pacific  coast,  however,  the  cities  and 
towns  are  farther  apart.  The  way  they  are  scattered  makes  one  think  much 
more  of  Russian  towns  and  cities  than  of  the  cities  in  the  eastern  part  of  our 
own  country.    There  are  many  towns  in  Russia  and  many  people  living  in 


1  From  National  Geographic  Magazine. 


56 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


them,  but  they  are  far  apart.  Have  you  studied  enough  about  Russia  to  see 
clearly  that  she  is  a  country  of  both  farms  and  cities?  True  enough,  three- 
fourths  of  her  people  are  peasants,  but  we  must  not  forget  that  she  also  has 
scores  of  towns  and  many  large  and  modern  cities.  We  would  have  found 
her  very  interesting  to  visit  in  the  years  we  have  described,  and  we  would  no 
doubt  have  been  surprised  to  find  that  this  country  which  we  think  of  as  very 
old  was  so  modern  and  up-to-date.  If  we  had  visited  Russia,  we  would  have 
found  many  things  which  we  should  have  liked  to  bring  home,  not  merely 
to  show  our  friends,  but  to  own  and  use. 

Suddenly  a  great  prosperous  country  crashed.  A  nation  which  had  been 
growing  up  for  a  thousand  years  turned  from  a  dominant  world  power  con- 
trolling more  territory  than  any  other  country  of  Europe  to  a  beggar  ask- 
ing for  bread. 

On  March  8,  1922  these  headlines  appeared  in  one  of  our  American 
magazines. 

SIGN  THE  ROLL  CALL 

From  the  depths  of  brave,  frozen  Russia 
comes  this  most  terrible  of  all  cries 

"WE  STARVE" 

will  YOU  ANSWER? 

The  next  two  months  will  be  the  most  crucial.  Reports  coming  from 
Russia  paint  pitiful  pictures.  Every  day  50,000  die  of  starvation!  Mothers 
are  drowning  their  children  to  silence  their  heart-rending  cries  for  bread. 
The  Russian  steppes  are  literally  covered  with  skeletons,  the  wasted  bodies 
the  prey  of  wolves.    How  many  more  shall  die  before  YOU  act? 

Will  You  Sign  the  Roll  Call? 

Immense  cargoes  of  food  MUST  be  sliipped  AT  ONCE  to  save  the 
starving.  If  the  powers  of  the  world  would  grant  Russia  credit  and  re- 
establish trade  with  her,  she  could  help  herself  in  this  awful  crisis.  Until 
credit  is  extended  YOU  MUST  HELP.  If  you  have  helped  before  then 
you  must  help  again,  and  still  again!  Those  who  help  now  will  have  aided 
Russia  in  her  DIREST  NEED. 


SIGN  THE  ROLL  CALL!  GIVE! 


RUSSIA:     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  ^  WORLD  POWER 


57 


Can  you  imagine  it!  Can  you  see  how  such  a  thing  could  possibly  be 
true?  How  could  this  nation  with  its  prosperous  cities,  and  its  enormous 
fields  and  all  the  140  million  people  it  had  to  do  the  work,  come  to  the  point 
of  starvation. 

Why  just  look  at  Table  VI.  and  recall  how  she  had  much  more  food 
than  she  wanted  and  was  even  sending  it  to  other  nations.  Think  of  what 
the  maps  show — the  quantities  of  wheat  and  potatoes  and  sheep  and  cattle 
she  raised.  Russia  is  a  world  power.-  Yet  she  is  on  her  knees  begging  for 
bread.  The  people  of  her  towns  and  cities  are  starving!  50,000  dying  each 
day  of  starvation.  "Immense  cargoes  of  food  needed  at  once  to  save  the 
starving",  say  the  headlines.  How  in  the  space  of  so  few  years  could  such  a 
change  have  been  brought  about  in  a  modern  western  nation  ?  Well,  in  the 
case  of  Russia  there  are  four  reasons. 

First  Reason:    War  and  Drought 

In  1914  Europeans  stopped  practically  everything  and  went  to  war  with 
each  other.  They  had  to  leave  their  farms  and  their  factories  and  their  shops 
and  go  to  war,  a  terrible  world-wide  conflict  against  Germany,  Austria,  and 
their  allies.  From  the  fields  in  Russia,  where  millions  of  men,  women,  and 
children  had  been  tilling  the  land,  the  strong,  able-bodied  youth  went  forth 
to  fight  the  best  youth  of  other  nations.  War  always  takes  the  ablest  and 
leaves  the  weaker  ones  to  continue  to  provide  the  food  and  necessities  of  life. 

In  England  when  the  war  came  and  the  men  went  away,  the  women  and 
children  went  into  the  fields  and  for  the  first  time  did  the  work  of  the  farms, 
went  into  the  offices,  ran  elevators,  and  became  street-car  conductors.  Men 
too  old  to  fight,  women  who  had  never  worked  at  anything,  those  of  the 
wealthy  class,  all  tried  to  do  something  to  help.  But  in  Russia  it  was  different, 
for  women  had  always  worked  and  helped  to  raise  the  food.  This  is  an  im- 
portant difference  between  English-speaking  nations  and  Slavic  ones.  But 
you  see  that  while  England  had  labor  to  draw  on  which  in  some  measure 
could  fill  the  places  of  those  who  had  gone,  Russia  had  none;  her  workers 
were  simply  reduced  by  the  number  who  went  to  war.  What  applied  to  the 
farms  applied  to  the  towns  and  cities  as  well.  Men  went  from  all  trades 
and  occupations  and  left  the  old  and  weak,  and  the  women  and  children,  to  do 
the  work  that  millions  of  strong  men  had  helped  to  do  before.  And  those 
who  were  not  actually  sent  to  the  trenches  were  taken  from  their  peace-time 
work  and  put  to  making  guns  and  shells  and  bayonets  and  trucks  and  other 
implements  with  which  to  destroy  civilization.  From  work  that  made  for 
peace  and  comfort,  they  went  into  the  business  of  making  instruments  to 
destroy  human  life  and  the  products  of  human  effort. 

Not  only  were  the  men  taken  away  from  the  fields,  but  horses  and  other 
farm  animals  were  seized  for  war  work.    This  put  a  still  greater  burden  upon 


58 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


the  farmers  who  were  left  to  provide  the  foodstuffs  for  the  armies  as  well  as 
for  the  home  folks,  for  they  depend  upon  horses  to  do  a  great  many  things  we 
do  by  machines.  Between  1914  and  1921  the  number  of  horses  in  Russia  de- 
creased one-sixth. 

To  make  matters  worse,  after  the  war  had  gone  on  nearly  four  years  the 
people  of  the  towns  and  cities  started  a  terrible  revolution.  The  Tsar's  gov- 
ernment was  overthrown,  and  disorder  and  suffering  reigned  everywhere. 
Factories  practically  stopped  running,,  the  shops  of  the  cities  closed.  The 
railroads  were  allowed  to  run  down  because  equipment  could  not  be  repaired 
or  replaced.  Other  countries  fearful  that  the  revolution  would  spread  out- 
side of  Russia  refused  to  trade  with  her.  Nothing  could  be  brought  in  from 
the  outside — neither  machines  to  help  do  her  farming,  nor  locomotives,  nor 
cars,  nor  rails  for  her  railroads,  no  coal  to  run  her  manufacturing  plants. 

1920  THE  YEAR  OF  THE  TERRIBLE  DROUGHT 

What  do  you  suppose  was  added  to  the  other  burdens  of  the  Russians  in 
1920?  As  if  the  fearful  war  and  the  disorder  of  revolution  were  not  enough, 
these  farming  people  had  to  endure  the  worst  drought  that  the  country  had 
had  in  many  years.  The  whole  great  region  around  the  Volga  River  was 
affected  by  it. 

Do  you  realize  what  a  drought  means  to  farmers?  It  means  that  the 
amount  of  rain  that  falls  is  very  much  less  than  in  normal  times ;  the  heat 
becomes  very  intense,  and  for  days  upon  days  there  is  no  relief  from  it.  \\  hat 
little  water  there  is  in  the  ground  dries  out  very  quickly,  and  the  soil  be- 
comes parched  and  dry — so  much  so  that  the  fields  look  as  though  they  had 
been  burned  off.  The  wheat  soon  dries  up  and  becomes  of  little  value.  You 
can  well  imagine  the  worried  faces  of  the  Russian  farmers  when  they  real- 
ized that  the  disaster  of  a  drought  was  upon  them.  Just  at  the  time  when 
they  needed  every  bushel  of  wheat  they  could  get,  and  more  than  they  had 
ever  needed  before,  the  fields  became  so  dry  that  the  grain  was  either  all  gone 
or  scarcely  worth  cutting.  In  places  where  the  need  was  most  desperate,  the 
farmers  cut  the  plants  carefully  one  by  one,  and  the  few  grains  of  wheat,  rye, 
or  barley  that  they  bore  were  painstakingly  harvested. 

Second  Reason:    Farming  by  hand  instead  of  by  machine 

Russia  crashed,  but  the  United  States,  another  great  and  prosperous 
country,  went  through  the  stress  and  strain  of  the  war  and  didn't  crash.  The 
American  people,  too,  left  the  fields  and  the  peace-time  factories  and  threw 
themselves  into  the  conflict  across  the  seas— millions  of  them,  and  yet  the 
United  States  did  not  become  a  starving  nation.  Indeed  she  kept  her  people 
almost  as  well  fed  and  as  comfortable  as  they  had  been  prior  to  the  war.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  farmers  were  more  prosperous  than  they  had  ever  been 
in  the  history  of  our  country.    You  noticed  how  almost  suddenly  they  began 


RUSSIA:     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  A  WORLD  POWER  59 

coming  into  town  honking  automobile  horns  instead  of  riding  slowly  behind 
their  old  grey  mares  as  they  had  done  before.  They  dressed  better,  they  got 
new  machinery  for  their  farms,  bought  victrolas,  and  pianos,  and  treated 
themselves  to  other  luxuries  they  had  not  been  able  to  afford  before  the  war. 
Then  of  course  hundreds  of  millionaires  sprang  up  all  over  the  country, 
until  "a  million  dollars"  didn't  sound  like  nearly  as  much  as  it  used  to.  But 
besides  keeping  our  own  people  so  well  taken  care  of,  the  United  States  sent 
enormous  supplies  of  wheat,  corn,  and  other  foods  to  the  countries  of  Europe. 


A  power  threshing  machine  doing  the  work  of  hundreds  of  farmers  such  as  are 

shown  in  the  next  picture. 
Fig.  25 1 

She  raised  18  billion  dollars  for  her  allies  and  sent  a  tremendous  army  of  men 
across  the  seas  to  help  them  win  the  war.  Of  course  we  did  have  to  get 
along  on  a  little  sugar,  and  we  did  use  brown  bread  somewhat  in  place  of 
white,  but  such  "goings-without"  were  fun  compared  to  the  ways  the  French, 
Germans,  Austrians,  Italians,  and  Slavs  felt  the  pinch  of  the  war. 

What  do  you  think  was  the  secret  of  our  being  able  to  meet  the  emergency 
of  w-ar  so  much  better  than  Russia  was  ?  Was  it  that  we  had  always  shipped 
so  much  more  grain  to  other  countries?  Turn  back  to  Fig.  5  and  see  if  that 
was  true  of  wheat.  Compare  the  difference  in  the  production  and  consump- 
tion bars  of  the  two  countries.    You  see  they  are  about  the  same. 

No,  it  was  not  that.  The  big  reason  was  in  the  way  we  farmed.  When 
you  look  at  the  next  two  pictures,  you  don't  find  it  difficult  to  believe,  do  you, 
that  one  American  farmer  could  raise  as  much  as  thirty  Russian  farmers? 
Do  the  pictures  show  you  why?  Throughout  the  vast  country  of  Russia 
very  few  machines  are  used  on  the  farms.  You  can  travel  hundreds  of  miles 
over  the  Russian  farms  of  the  Volga  region  without  seeing  a  threshing 
machine  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  25.    Instead,  the  grains  of  wheat  are 


^  From  International  Harvester  Co. 


60 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


laboriously  beaten  out  with  crude  implements  like  those  in  the  hands  of  the 
two  ''smocked"  Russians  of  the  picture.  Thousands  of  Ukrainian  peasants 
plow  their  rich  soil  with  home-made  plows  that  just  stir  the  top  of  the  ground, 
much  in  the  same  way  as  our  pioneer  forefathers  did  a  few  years  ago  on  our 
great  middle  western  plains.  They  sow,  reap,  and  thresh  by  hand,  and 
when  market  time  comes  in  the  autumn  they  may  be  seen  slowly  hauling 
their  crops  to  the  villages  and  towns  in  such  carts  as  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  27. 


Russian  peasants  with  "flails"  with  which  grain  is  "threshed". 
Fig.  26  ^ 


Evidently  the  machine  age  has  not  yet  hit  all  parts  of  eastern  Europe.  Can 
you  find  the  farmer's  brake  in  the  picture?  Do  you  imagine  the  cart  was 
made  by  the  International  Harvester  Company?  Which  would  you  rather 
have  to  haul  your  wheat  to  market,  a  cart  like  this  one  or  a  Ford  truck?  It  is 
such  differences  as  these  that  account  for  Russia's  inability  to  meet  the 
emergency  of  the  world  war.  The  peasant  with  the  cart  probably  takes  a 
whole  day  to  go  into  town  and  back  and  carries  only  a  very  small  load.  An 
American  farmer  using  a  gasoline  truck  can  carry  ten  to  twenty  times  as 
much  and  go  and  come  from  the  local  grain  elevator  in  an  lunir  or  two. 

I  I^^Toin  Nalionnl  < IroRni pliic  Ma,i?azine 


RUSSIA:     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  A  WORLD  POWER  61 

Think  how  many  times  as  much  he  could  carry  in  a  day  if  he  had  it.  Of 
course  what  the  Russian  farmer  could  raise  w^ouldn't  keep  the  American 
farmer  busy  long ;  but  on  the  other  hand  it  takes  the  Russian  away  many  days 
when  he  should  be  working  in  the  field  itself. 

If  you  have  any  doubt  about  which  method  of  farming  is  the  better,  read 
this  comparison  of  what  was  done  at  the  Paris  Exposition  more  than  a  half 
century  ago. 

At  that  time  threshing  machines  of  the  very  crudest  type 
were  just  being  manufactured  for  the  first  time.  In  order  to 
prove  to  the  doubting  farmers  of  the  world  who  were  doing 
just  as  their  great  grandfathers  had  done  before  them — that 
is,  beating  the  grain  out  by  hand — a  contest  was  held.  Six 
men  using  hand  flails  threshed  60  liters  of  wheat  in  a  half 
hour.  One  American  using  a  machine  threshed  740  liters  in 
the  same  time.  And  that  was  in  the  early  days  of  invention, 
over  fifty  years  ago. 


Typical  of  the  way  farmers  take  things  to  market  in  Russia 
Fig  27  i 


Imagine  such  a  contest  now  with  all  the  great  improvements  in  machinery 
and  with  progressive  farmers  enthusiastic  and  intelligent  in  the  use  of 
machines.  What  enormous  savings  have  been  brought  about  in  modern 
countries  by  the  substitution  of  machines  for  hand  implements.  One  man 
has  estimated  that  the  use  of  threshing  machines  in  two  Ohio  counties  saves 
each  year  the  labor  of  40,000  men.  If  this  is  correct  you  can  get  some  rough 
notion  of  what  saving  would  be  brought  about  in  Russia  where  72  per  cent 
of  a  nation  of  140  million  people  are  engaged  in  farming.    Would  you  say, 

1  From  National  Geographic  Magazine. 


62 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


then,  that  the  Russians  are  up  to  date  like  the  Germans,  the  English,  the 
Canadians,  the  Austrailians?  See  if  you  can  find  any  farm  pictures  of  these 
countries  to  compare  with  the  Russian  pictures. 

You  should  not  carry  away  the  idea,  however,  that  all  Russian  peasants 
farm  by  hand.  For  some  years  there  have  been  a  few  modern  machines  in 
Russia — a  small  number  of  tractors,  reapers,  threshers,  and  so  on.  The  pic- 
ture of  Fig.  28  illustrates  this  very  interestingly.  It  not  only  shows  the 
machine,  but  the  curious  garb  of  the  peasant  and  his  beard  which  is  still  the 


A  few  of  the  great  estates  of  Russia  have  used  agricultural  machines.    Only  a  few 

however. 
Fig.  28 

fashion  over  there.  Since  they  know  about  our  machines  in  Russia,  why 
don't  they  all  use  them,  you  may  ask.  The  answer  is  that  only  the  landlords 
of  great  estates  could  afford  to  buy  them.  Remember  that  before  the  Revolu- 
tion the  work  of  farming  the  lords'  lands  was  done  in  the  main  by  peasants 
who  received  no  pay  for  their  labor.  This  meant  very  large  incomes  for  the 
lords,  and  they  could  therefore  afford  to  buy  machines.  As  these  rich  land- 
lords learned  more  about  the  way  Americans  were  making  huge  profits  by 
using  machinery,  they  gradually  imported  it  for  their  farms.  But  even  in 
1914  the  use  of  such  implements  and  machines  was  very  limited  and  the 
Russian  ways  were  still  in  sharp  contrast  to  American  ways. 

THE  LAY  OF  THE  LAND  IN  RUSSIA 

Naturally,  the  ability  of  a  country  to  be  independent  of  other  nations 
depends  a  good  deal  upon  the  kind  of  country  it  is — whether  the  soil  is 
fertile,  whether  there  are  great  agricultural  plains,  or  whether  the  territory 
is  broken  up  by  high  mountain  ranges;  whether  there  are  plenty  or  rivers, 
or  whether  the  land  is  dry  and  subject  to  droughts. 


RUSSIA:     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  A  WORLD  POWER 


63 


What  about  Russia?  Is  her  soil  rich  and  fertile  as  in  China  and  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States?  Or,  is  Russia  icy  like  Greenland  and 
Labrador?  Do  great  mountain  ranges  break  into  the  broad  plains  as  do 
the  Rockies  and  Appalachians  in  America? 

Find  a  physical  map  of  Europe  in  your  geography.  From  the  north 
run  your  eye  down  over  the  different  regions  included  within  European 
Russia.  Would  you  expect  large  farms  in  the  northern  regions,  those 
marked  "Artie  Plains"?  There  must  be  a  very  large  area  around 
Archangel  north  and  east  in  which  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  raise 
wheat  or  corn  or- such  food.  This  land  near  the  Artie  Ocean  is  like  the 
land  of  the  Eskimos;  it  has  almost  no  trade  and  is  frozen  most  of  the 
year.  Even  in  its  best  seasons  it  is  covered  only  with  grass  and  moss.  When 
the  short  summertime  comes,  the  ground  thaws  out  a  few  inches,  occa- 
sionally even  a  foot  or  two,  but  it  never  gets  thoroughly  fallow  so  that 
crops  can  be  planted  and  harvested.  A  few  flowers  and  sometimes  grassy 
plots  thrive  in  this  region  on  the  long  summer  days.  We  call  these  level 
frozen  areas  that  have  no  tress  "tundras".  You  have  all  heard  of  the 
land  of  the  reindeer.  Well,  this  land  of  the  "tundras"  is  the  land  of 
the  reindeer  people. 

Study  this  same  region  on  the  population  map.  Fig.  3.  Do  you  find 
many  people  living  there?  Is  it  because  they  don't  like  the  cold — because 
it  is  hard  to  keep  warm?    Just  what  is  it? 

Now  move  south  in  your  study  of  the  map  from  the  icy  region  of  the 
north  to  the  forested  region  of  the  Valdai  Hills  and  the  Ural  Mountains. 
This  is  the  place  of  one  of  Russia's  enormous  resources.  The  immense 
forests  of  this  mountainous  country  make  us  think  very  much  of  our  own 
great  forested  regions  in  the  northwest.  They  remind  us  of  our  forests, 
too,  because  we  know  that  the  Russians  have  wasted  theirs  just  as  we 
Americans  have  wasted  ours.  The  forests  of  European  Russia  alone 
cover  a  territory  of  474  millions  of  acres.  If  Poland,  which  was  a  part  of 
Russia  before  the  war,  and  the  Caucasus  are  included,  the  total  forested 
area  is  550  millions. 

Do  you  think  from  your  study  of  the  physical  map  that  Russia  could 
raise  crops  in  this  northern  country  ? 

Now  what  about  the  central  and  southern  portion  of  European  Russia  ? 
Do  you  notice  that  it  is  nearly  all  level  country?  The  southern  half  of 
Russia  is  very  unlike  the  United  States  in  this  respect.  In  fact,  no  other 
country  in  the  world  can  begin  to  approach  Russia  in  the  amount  of  its 
level  land.  The  Ural  Mountains  and  the  Valdai  Hills,  to  which  we  have 
referred,  on  the  north,  and  the  Causasus  on  the  South  are  the  only  hills 
of  any  extent  on  this  whole  wide  country. 

Furthermore,  this  land  is  very  fertile  indeed.  Turn  to  your  wheat 
map.  Fig.  4,  and  see  where  Russia's  large  quantities  of  wheat  are  raised. 


64 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


This  large  section  of  land  running  across  southern  Russia  from  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains  to  the  Urals  is  a  well-known  farming  district  that  is 
sometimes  called  the  Black  Mold  region.  The  soil  is  as  black  as  coal 
when  it  is  w^et  because  of  a  rich  vegetable  mold  that  has  collected  over  it 
slowly  through  thousands  of  years.  Do  you  know  it  is  estimated  that  in 
some  places  this  mold  may  be  10  to  20  feet  deep? 

This  whole  southern  section  is  called  Ukrainia,  and  the  people  who 
live  in  it  are  called  "Little  Russians."  Those  who  live  in  the  region  of 
Moscow  and  Petersburg  are  called  "Great  Russians."  During  the  last 
three  or  four  years — since  the  Revolution — many  of  the  people  of  Uk- 
rainia have  thought  a  great  deal  about  becoming  independent  of  Russia, 
and  they  have  even  worked  toward  it.  Do  you  think  the  "Great  Rus- 
sians" would  want  this  to  happen?  Would  European  Russian  ever  be  an 
exporter  of  wheat  again  if  it  did  happen?  Do  you  think  in  such  an  event 
Russia  would  be  able  even  to  supply  her  own  people  with  food  ? 

Third  Reason:    Small  farms  in  russia 

Do  you  agree  now  that  one  real  reason  why  America  could  feed  the 
world  in  a  great  crises,  at  the  same  time  taking  good  care  of  her  own  people, 
was  her  extensive  use  of  machinery?  As  you  go  on  with  your  studies,  you 
will  learn  much  more  about  the  marvellous  industrial  developments  in 
America  in  the  past  seventy-five  years. 

The  fact  that  Russia  uses  little  machinery  is  closely  related  to  the  way 
her  land  is  owned  and  passed  on  from  father  to  son.  The  Russian  peasant 
is  a  land-holder,  true  enough,  but  he  farms  in  a  very  different  way  from  the 
American  farmer.  His  farm,  instead  of  being  in  one  big  plot  of  ground  as 
the  farms  in  this  country  are,  is  divided  into  strips,  or  oblongs,  which  are 
scattered  about  over  the  village  with  neighbors'  lots  between  them.  The 
adjoining  patches  are  sometimes  planted  w^ith  the  same  crop,  but  more  often 
they  are  not,  so  that  the  hillsides  frequently  give  the  effect  of  a  patchwork 
quilt  with  their  many  shades  of  green  and  brown. 

A  traveler  journeying  through  the  farm  lands  of  Europe  for  the  first 
time  wrote: 

"I  have  counted  thirty  men  ploughing  at  the  same  time,  each  working 
his  share  of  the  same  big,  unbroken  field, — open,  for  each  man's  share  is 
marked,  not  by  Hedge,  fence  or  wall,  but  only  by  a  furrow  some  thirty 
:entimeters  (or  about  a  foot)  wide,  which  must  not  be  planted.  It  is  said, 
and  I  believe  the  case  has  actually  occurred,  that  the  strips  are  sometimes  so 
narrow  that  a  man  must  walk  on  his  neighbor's  land  to  lead  the  plough-horse 
on  his  own.  You  may  follow  such  a  strip  with  the  eye,  over  hollow  and 
swell,  till  it  disappears  over  the  last  ridge  in  sight.  When  land  is  divided, 
for  instance  among  sons,  each  strip  is  generally  split  lengthwise  to  insure 


RUSSIA:     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  A  WORLD  POWER 


65 


equality.  Otherwise  one  might  get  the  sunny  slope  and  the  rich  hollow, 
another  the  cold  slope  and  a  poor  bit  of  sandy  soil.  Thus  the  strips  get 
ever  narrower.  This  system  is  wasteful  in  every  way.  First,  it  is  wasteful 
of  land.  Where  the  holdings  are  in  strips  only  seven  meters  (22  feet)  wide, 
the  boundary  furrows  take  up  nearly  a  tenth  of  the  land  (8.6  per  cent) .  More- 
over, the  strips  being  straight,  if  a  field  happens  not  to  be  rectangular,  awk- 
ward corners  are  left  which  must  be  laboriously  worked  by  hand.  It  is 
wasteful  of  time,  for  a  man  has  to  travel  all  over  the  crazy  quilt  of  the  town- 
ship to  work  his  many  scattered  bits  of  land."^ 

The  Russians  have  the  custom  of  dividing  up  the  land  of  the  parent 
among  all  the  sons,  giving  a  strip  to  each  one.  If  the  peasant  has  several 
plots  of  ground  in  different  places,  each  son  gets  a  share  of  each  plot  because 
some  parts  of  the  land  may  be  better  than  others  and  they  must  all  share 
alike.  You  can  easily  see  how  this  constant  subdividing  of  farms  would  re- 
duce the  amount  held  by  any  one  person.  As  a  result,  the  average  size  of  the 
peasant's  farm  throughout  Russia  today  is  about  8  acres.  Have  you  any 
idea  how  large  the  common  run  of  American  farms  are?  Actually  almost 
ten  times  as  large — 78.6  acres  is  the  average  size  of  American  farms. 

HOW  AMERICAN  FARM  LAND  IS  DIVIDED 

Do  you  know  how  farm  land  in  your  own  country  is  divided?  Are 
American  farms  arranged  in  long  irregular  narrow  strips  like  those  of  the 
Slavic  people?  No,  quite  dif¥erently.  Years  ago  when  the  American  Gov- 
ernment was  planning  how  the  new  lands  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and 
near-by  states  should  be  divided  up,  it  sent  its  surveyors  to  mark  out  im- 
portant boundaries  all  over  that  region.  There  were  no  wire  or  rail  fences 
or  stone  walls  then  as  there  are  today;  the  land  was  all  continuous  open 
prairie.  So  the  surveyors  went  to  work  and  staked  out  important  lines  east 
and  west  and  north  and  south  all  through  that  part  of  the  country.  These 
were  called  "principal  meridians".  Running  parallel  with  them  and  36 
miles  apart,  other  lines  were  marked  out  very  carefully,  and  stone  posts 
topped  with  iron  points  were  sunk  deep  into  the  ground  to  mark  the  place 
where  certain  lands  began  and  ended.  Between  these  36-mile  lines  they 
laid  out  townships.  These  were  usually  six  miles  square,  so  that  each  town- 
ship contained  about  36  square  miles  of  land.  The  township,  in  turn,  was 
divided  into  smaller  plots  from  which  the  farms  themselves  were  made.  We 
often  speak  of  a  ''section  of  land".  This  is  640  acres.  The  sections  are 
divided  into  halves,  quarters,  and  eighths,  and  it  is  very  common  for  a 
farmer  in  seUing  land  to  divide  it  up  into  units  of  80  acres.  In  fact,  80 
acres  is  one  of  the  most  common  units  in  our  country  today.  Compare  this 
unit  with  the  78.6  acres  which  we  said  was  the  average  size  of  the  American 
farm. 


iBalch,  Emily.    "Our  Slavic  Fellow  Citizens,"  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 


66 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Do  5^ou  know  how  much  an  acre  is  ?  Can  you  think  of  any  piece  of  ground 
which  is  said  to  be  an  acre  in  size?  If  you  live  in  a  city  like  Chicago  or  New 
York,  it  will  help  you  to  think  of  a  city  block  as  about  four  acres.  At  any 
rate  you  see  the  Russian  farm  is  only  about  twice  as  large  as  a  city  block. 
Imagine  calling  yourself  a  farmer  with  a  little  plot  of  ground  the  size  of  two 
city  blocks  and  scattered  around  in  different  places  at  that — and  with  no 
other  way  to  make  a  living  for  yourself  and  family.  Then  think  of  the 
American  farmer  with  ten  times  as  much  land. 


What  do  you  think  now  of  the  progressiveness  of  these  different  peoples 
that  we  are  studying?  Is  the  way  that  the  peasants  farm,  the  use  they  make 
of  machinery,  the  way  the  people  do  business,  any  indication  of  the  amount 
of  education  they  have?  of  whether  a  nation  is  an  enlightened  people  or  a 
backward  people?  Do  you  think  that  most  of  the  Russian  peasants  have 
been  much  educated  either  in  school  or  out?  Of  course  in  some  parts  of 
the  United  States  we  still  find  farmers  using  the  old  wooden  plow,  and  the 
flail,  and  the  scythe  or  cradle,  but  not  to  any  large  extent.  Such  things  are 
almost  a  curiosity  in  this  country,  but  you  may  run  across  them  some  time. 

Later  we  shall  learn  more  about  the  education  of  our  people  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  other  nations,  but  when  you  try  to  account  for  a  pros- 
perous nation  breaking  down  in  an  emergency,  carry  in  mind  the  idea  that 
the  education  of  the  people  has  something  to  do  with  it,  in  fact  a  great  deal 
to  do  with  it. 


Fourth  Reason:     the  break-down  of  transportation  in  RUSSIA 

Mrs.  H.  G.  Wells,  the  famous  English  writer,  went  to  Russia  just  two 
years  ago,  after  the  Revolution,  to  see  if  the  stories  that  he  had  heard  of  the 
horrible  conditions  there  were  true.  He  found  that  the  city  of  Petersburg 
which  in  1914  had  1,200,000  people  had  in  1920  only  700,000.  Imagine  it! 
A  great  metropolis,  capital  of  a  nation  of  140  million  people,  dwindling  to 
half  its  size  in  just  the  space  of  two  or  three  years.  Mr.  Wells  tells  us  some- 
thing about  Petersburg.  He  tells  us  what  the  streets  looked  like  in  contrast 
to  their  hustling  life  of  1914. 

"The  shops  have  an  utterly  wretched  and  abandoned  look;  paint  is  peel- 
ing off,  windows  are  cracked,  some  are  broken  and  boarded  up,  some  still 
display  a  few  fly-blown  relics  of  stock  in  the  window,  some  have  their  wind- 
ows covered  with  notices;  the  windoA\s  arc  gro\\iiig  dim,  the  fixtures  have 
gathered  two  years'  dust.  'Vhcy  arc  dead  shops.  They  will  never  open 
again. 


RUSSIA  :     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  A  WORLD  POWER 


67 


All  the  great  bazaar-like  markets  are  closed,  too,  in  Petersburg  now,  in 
the  desperate  struggle  to  keep  a  public  control  of  necessities  and  prevent  the 
profiteer  driving  up  the  last  vestiges  of  food  to  incredible  prices.  And  this 
cessation  of  shops  makes  walking  about  the  streets  seem  a  silly  sort  of  thing  to 
do.  Nobody  'walks  about'  any  more.  One  realizes  that  a  modern  city  is 
really  nothing  but  long  alleys  of  shops  and  restaurants  and  the  like.  Shut 
them  up,  and  the  meaning  of  a  street  has  disappeared.  People  hurry  past— 
a  thin  traffic  compared  with  my  memories  of  1914.  The  electric  street  cars 
are  still  running  and  busy— until  six  o'clock.  They  are  the  only  means  of 
locomotion  for  ordinary  people  remaining  in  town— the  last  legacy  of  cap- 
italist enterprise.  They  became  free  while  we  were  in  Petersburg.  Previ- 
ously there  had  been  a  charge  of  two  or  three  roubles— the  hundredth  part 
of  the  price  of  an  egg.  Freeing  them  made  little  difference  in  their  extreme 
congestion  during  the  home-going  hours.  Every  one  scrambles  on  the  tram- 
car.  If  there  is  no  room  inside  you  cluster  outside.  In  the  busy  hours 
festoons  of  people  hang  outside  by  any  handhold;  people  are  frequently 
pushed  off,  and  accidents  are  frequent.  We  saw  a  crowd  collected  round  a 
child  cut  in  half  by  a  tramcar,  and  two  people  in  the  little  circle  in  which  we 
moved  in  Petersburg  had  broken  their  legs  in  tram-way  accidents. 

The  roads  along  which  these  tramcars  run  are  in  a  frightful  condi- 
tion. They  have  not  been  repaired  for  three  or  four  years ;  they  are  full  of 
holes  like  shell-holes,  often  two  or  three  feet  deep.  Frost  has  eaten  out  great 
cavities,  drains  have  collapsed,  and  people  have  torn  up  the  wood  pavement 
for  fires.   Only  once  did  we  see  any  attempt  to  repair  the  streets  in  Petrograd. 

Every  one  is  shabby;  every  one  seems  to  be  carrying  bundles  in  both 
Petersburg  and  Moscow.  To  walk  into  some  side  street  in  the  twilight  and 
see  nothing  but  ill-clad  figures,  all  hurrying,  all  carrying  loads,  gives  one 
an  impression  as  though  the  entire  population  were  setting  out  in  flight.  That 
impression  is  not  altogether  misleading.  The  Bolshevik  statistics  I  have 
seen  are  perfectly  frank  and  honest  in  the  matter.  The  population  of  Pet- 
ersburg has  fallen  from  1,200,000  to  a  little  over  700,000,  and  it  is  still 
falling.  Many  of  the  people  have  returned  to  peasant  life  in  the  country, 
many  have  gone  abroad,  but  hardship  has  taken  an  enormous  toll  of  this 
city.  The  death-rate  in  Petersburg  is  over  81  per  1,000;  formerly  it  was 
high  among  European  cities  at  22.  The  birth-rate  of  the  underfed  and 
profoundly  depressed  population  is  about  15.    It  was  formerly  about  30." 


So  this  is  what  happens  to  cities  in  a  country  of  very  wide  territory  when 
war  or  some  other  great  crisis  comes.  The  stretches  of  land  in  Russia  are 
very  great — much  greater  than  other  countries  of  Europe.  Do  you  recall 
that  European  Russia  was  almost  as  large  as  the  United  States?  Turn  to  a 
map  in  your  geography  w^hich  shows  the  cities  and  railroads  of  Russia.  Do 


Wells,  H.  G.:  "Russia  in  the  Shadows."  George  H.  Doran  Co.,  New  York,  1921. 
Pages  20-25. 


68 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


you  notice  how  far  apart  the  towns  and  cities  seem  to  be?  Now  turn  to  a 
similar  map  of  the  United  States.  We  have  so  many  more  towns  and  cities — 
literally  hundreds  of  them — and,  except  in  the  western  part  of  our  country, 
they  are  much  closer  together. 

Now  we  have  already  learned  that  people  in  the  cities  are  not  able  to 
raise  food  with  which  to  keep  themselves  alive.  They  depend  upon  the 
farmers  in  the  country.  In  Russia,  as  in  the  United  States,  the  farmers  near 
the  towns  and  cities  drive  in  with  their  produce,  and  so  little  towns  and 
villages  rarely  have  trouble  in  getting  enough  food.  During  the  years  just 
after  the  War  and  the  Revolution,  1918,  1919,  1920,  when  it  was  so  hard 
to  get  food  and  when  the  terrible  drought  added  to  the  difficulty,  we  must 
remember  that  even  the  peasants  starved.  There  was  a  large  famine  area 
in  the  southern  part  of  Russia  which  in  1919  extended  over  4622  dessiatines 
(about  12,  479  acres) ^.  By  1920,  however,  the  very  year  of  the  drought,  this 
had  slowly  decreased  to  4227  dessiatines;  and  by  1921,  when  the  govern- 
ment had  learned  how  to  distribute  food  a  little  better,  to  3056  dessiatines. 
So  do  not  be  misled  into  thinking  that  all  the  peasants  throughout  Russia  had 
no  difficulty  in  getting  food.  The  fact  is,  however,  that  by  and  large  the 
farmers  of  Russia  have  been  better  off  since  the  land  was  divided  up  after  the 
Revolution  in  1917  than  they  were  before. 

No  doubt  you  are  wondering  why  the  peasants  did  not  divide  up  their 
food  with  the  cities.  Well  they  did,  so  far  as  they  could.  During  1920  and 
1921,  and  no  doubt  even  today,  every  railroad  train  that  passed  through  a 
town  or  village  was  met  by  peasants  eager  to  sell  food.  Stories  are  told  by 
returning  travelers  that  that  is  the  only  way  the  people  in  many  of  the  cities 
have  to  get  food ;  and  we  must  remember,  too,  that  the  peasants  near  enough 
to  the  cities  and  towns  peddle  food  much  as  they  did  before  the  war  and  as 
our  truck  gardeners  do  here  today.  Of  course  in  Petersburg  and  Moscow 
the  Soviet. Government  tried  to  collect  all  this  food  and  redistribute  it  them- 
selves among  the  people. 

Why,  then,  if  the  peasants  were  raising  food  and  wanted  to  help  feed 
was  no  way  to  get  the  food  in  quantities  to  the  large  cities.  They  were  far 
apart  and  the  huge  amounts  needed  could  only  be  transported  by  railroads. 
And  do  you  know  that  since  1914  the  rai'lroads  of  Russia,  few  and  far  between 
as  they  were,  have  simply  gone  to  pieces? 

"Few  and  far  between!"  Look  again  at  your  geography  map  which 
shows  the  railroads  of  Russia.  Do  you  notice  how  they  consist  only  of  a 
few  great  trunk  lines  running  from  the  larger  cities  north,  south,  east,  and 
west?  How  like  the  center  of  a  web  Moscow  is!  Eight  large  railroad  lines 
radiate  from  her  like  the  spokes  from  the  hub  of  a  wheel.  Remember  that 
Moscow  for  a  long  time  was  the  capital  of  Russia.  Make  notes  of  the  other 
large  cities  through  which  these  trunk  lines  go. 


1  A  (les.siatino  is  about  '^.7  acres. 


70  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Now  compare  this  map  with  the  railroad  map  of  the  United  States  given 
in  Fig.  29.  What  a  vast  difference  in  the  intricacy  of  the  network  of  lines. 
Our  railroads  too  are  based  on  great  trunk  lines— the  New  York  Central 
and  the  Pennsylvania  running  from  New  York  to  Chicago,  with  branch  lines 
to  other  points;  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  New  Hartford  tying  New 
England  to  the  country  west  of  the  Hudson  River ;  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio 
tying  the  eastern  coast  to  the  central  plains;  the  Great  Northern  and  the 
Northern  Pacific  making  neighbors  of  Seattle,  Minneapolis,  and  Chicago. 
The  Santa  Fe,  the  Union  Pacific,  and  the  Southern  Pacific  do  a  like  service 
for  San  Francisco,  Denver,  Omaha,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Chicago,  and 
other  places.  But  there  is  a  great  difference  between  our  railroads  and  the 
Russian  railroads.  Our  railroads  were  built  originally,  most  of  them  at  least, 
by  people  who  needed  transportation  service  to  connect  their  towns  with 
other  nearby  towns.  In  the  main,  this  meant  that  practically  every  com- 
munity of  any  size  in  America  was  connected  with  others  near  it,  and  then 
the  trunk  lines  developed  out  of  these  smaller  railroads.  So  you  see  the 
smaller  links  of  railroad  came  first  and  the  larger  ones  tied  them  together 
later.  Now  it  is  possible  for  people  to  travel  or  to  ship  goods  from  almost 
any  town  or  village  in  our  country  to  any  other. 

What  about  the  miles  of  railroads  in  Russia  and  the  United  States? 
How  do  you  think  they  compare  in  number?  In  1919  America  had  263707  ; 
on  January  1,  1921  Russia  had  29,909  miles.  Remember  that  European 
Russia  is  two-thirds  as  large  as  the  United  States  and  that  before  1920  it 
had  more  people— 140  million  against  106  million.  This  means  that  for  a 
country  of  such  wide  territory  and  so  many  cities  Russia  has  a  very  small 
railroad  mileage.  How  dangerous  this  is  for  the  people  who  live  in  the 
cities.  Just  imagine  what  would  happen  if  the  railroads  that  bring  the 
food  to  your  city  should  stop  running.  Perhaps  they  have  stopped  running 
in  the  past  few  years  so  that  you  can  remember  a  time  when  in  your  town 
there  was  no  coal  to  be  had  and  people,  as  in  1917-1918,  had  a  hard  time 
to  keep  warm.  Do  you  see  how  important  to  the  lives  of  the  people  in  cities 
the  smooth  running  of  the  transportation  system  is?  It  takes  much  less 
time  for  few  to  collapse  than  it  does  for  many.  So  when  the  war  came 
the  few  miles  of  railroad  lines  in  Russia  went  to  pieces  very  quickly. 
Practically  all  the  industries  of  Russia  broke  down.  Table  VIII  shows  this 
clearly. 

If  you  did  not  know  what  had  taken  place,  you  would  probably 
guess  it  from  a  study  of  the  things  that  Russians  produced  and  made  in 
1913  and  1920.  Just  imagine!  Only  90  locomotives  produced  in  the  en- 
tire country  in  1920;  609  in  1913.  Only  one-fourth  as  much  coal  mined  in 
1920  as  in  1913.  Since  the  railroads  cannot  run  without  coal,  do  you  see  an- 
other excellent  reason  why  the  people  starved?  Of  course  you  also  see  an  ex- 
cellent reason  wliy  in  this  cold  country  the  coming  on  of  winter  is  such  a 


RUSSIA:     THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  A  WORLD  POWER 


71 


dreaded  event.  When  the  wood  blocks  in  the  street  pavements  are  torn 
up  to  make  fires  so  that  people  can  be  warm  and  the  very  furniture  of  the 
house— ballustrades  in  the  halls — every  piece  of  wood  that  could  be  spared 
was  used  for  fuel. 

Table  VIII 

Can  you  see  from  this  table  how  the  industries  of  Russia  broke  down? 

 ^  '  —  ^1 


1913  1920 

Coal  (thousand  of  poods)   1,738,409  406,499 

Oil  (thousands  of  poods)    564,300  233,900 

Peat  (thousands  of  poods)   95,000  92,803 

Ores  (thousands  of  poods)   638,400  10,400 

Salt  (thousands  of  poods)   121,822  37,256 

Cast  Iron  (thousands  of  poods)   257,400  6,330 

Copper  (thousands  of  poods)   2,057   

Cement  (thousands  of  barrels)   12,167  363 

Bricks  (thousands)    2,000,000  43,000 

Locomotives   609  90 

Trucks   20,492  854 

Ploughs   667,000  88,838 

Electric  Machines,  Dynamoes,  etc   678,000  36,700 

Lamps  (thousands)    2,564  258 

Accumulators  (poods)    207,748  25,924 

Sulphuric  Acid  {poods)    7,688,128  691,387 

Caustic  Soda  (poods)    2,633,875  2,532 

Sulphates  (poods)    3,821,880  662,066 

Cotton  Yarn  (thousands  of  poods)   16,000  825 

Woollen  Yarn  (thousands  of  poods).  2,400  560 

Hides  (thousands)   16,000  6,132 

Paper  (thousands  of  poods)    9,100  2,260 

Sugar  (thousands  of  poods)   82,806  5,542 

Tobacco,  (thousands  of  lbs.)   21,943  9,294 


Perhaps  you  are  thinking  that  as  in  America,  the  Russians  would  use 
automobile  trucks  to  move  the  food  from  the  country  into  the  city.  True, 
if  they  had  them,  but  the  plain  fact  is  that  they  were  not  able  to  make 
them.  Only  854  trucks  were  made  in  all  Russia  in  1920  compared  to 
20,000  in  1913.  Furthermore,  during  the  last  three  years  the  people  of  the 
v^^orld  did  not  trade  with  Russia,  so  that  trucks  could  not  be  shipped  to 
them. 

Do  you  see  now  why  the  people  in  the  cities  and  towns  of  Russia  starved 
when  in  many  sections  of  the  country  not  so  far  away  from  them  the  peasants 
had  plenty? 

EXERCISE 

In  your  notebook  make  a  summary  in  which  you  state  the  reasons  why 
Russia,  a  world  power  in  1914,  is  helpless  in  1922.  Tell  which  reasons 
you  think  are  the  most  important.  State  what  lessons  you  think  the  Amer- 
ican people  can  draw  from  what  happened  to  Russia. 


IV.    CHINA:  AN  OLD  CIVILIZATION,  ITS  RESOURCES 
UNDEVELOPED 


Are  there  any  Chinese  people  living  in  your  city?  Do  you  know  any? 
What  do  they  do  for  a  Kving?  Do  they  dress  as  our  people  do,  or  do  they 
wear  queer  clothing? 

Are  there  French  people  in  your  town^  Germans?  Italians?  Do  you 
see  them  more  commonly  than  you  do  Chinese  ?  Do  you  remember  when  you 
were  studying  about  the  many  nationalities  that  make  up  America  whether 
many  of  them  came  from  China  ?  Do  you  imagine  that  in  China  where  these 
brown-skinned  laundrymen  come  from  all  the  people  do  the  same  kind  of 
work?  Do  you  think  they  wear  pigtails  there  and  have  the  same  brown 
skins  and  queer  slanting  eyes?  Perhaps  the  laundrymen  you  have  seen  in 
your  town  wear  smocks.  Do  you  think  they  all  do  this  in  far-off  China?  Do' 
you  think  it  is  warm  enough  in  China  to  wear  such  clothing  all  the  year 
round?  How  do  you  imagine  these  people  live?  In  great  smoky  cities,  or 
in  little  hamlets  and  villages  scattered  over  thousands  of  miles  of  sandy 
plains?  Have  you  ever  seen  a  Chinese  driving  an  automobile  in  America ? 
Do  you  imagine  that  in  the  towns  and  cities  of  China  the  streets  have  traffic 
policemen?  Can  you  picture  in  the  Chinese  cities  long  lines  of  Fords  and 
Cadillacs  and  Oaklands  hurrying  this  way  and  that?  When  you  think  of 
China,  do  you  see  in  your  mind's  eye  enormous  sky-scrappers,  industrial 
cities,  forty-two  story  buildings,  clanging  street-cars,  great  department 
stores,  or  do  you  see  little  farms  with  plodding  tired  Chinese  men  and  women^ 
plowing,  sowing  and  harvesting  their  few  acres  of  land  ? 

The  0(d  Countries 
Enijland  \ 

prance     f  The  ^titWies  of  ttiese      Countries  beqan  as  early  as  1000  A  D  w 
5vye<<cn  J 


1922 


^      '         \         \         \         \         \         \         \  i 
A.D.  1000      1100      1200     1300      1400      1500      1600     TOO      1600  1900 

^  Araen+ina  \  The  new 

This   IS   a  time   line.    It   helps  you   to  --^  Australia    /  Countries, 

1  ,         1  •         .  1  Countries^,  Brazil 

remember  when   things   happened.  i\  Canada 

UniTED  Sr/CTES 

Fig.  30 

No,  China  is  neither  the  country  of  the  pig-tailed  laundryman,  nor 
primarily  of  great  cities  with  all  their  industrial  h'fe.  Neither  picture  is 
a  true  one.  China  has  cities, — large  ones,  quite  a  number  of  them  over 
100,000  in  population.    It  also  has  a  great  rich  farming  area. 


china:  an  old  civilization 


73 


What  does  Fig.  30  tell  you  about  the  countries  that  you  studied  in  the 
first  pamphlet  ?  How  old  is  an  "old  country"  ?  About  how  old  is  the  United 
States  as  a  country? 

How  old  do  you  think  this  curious  country  is  that  we  are  beginning  to 
study  about  now?  Fig.  30  tells  us  that  old  countries  go  back  at  least  a 
thousand  years,  and  that  the  new  ones  are  very  new  indeed. 

Does  Fig.  31  give  you  the  same  feeling  as  the  other  time  line  did? 


eooo 

B.C. 


1000 
B.C. 


of 
Christ 


Modern  European 
nations  about 
1000  years  old. 


"Dark  Aojes'in  Europe. 


Marco  Polo 
tells  Europe 
about  China, 

,000 

A.D.  1500 


European 

nations 

proo)ress 

rapidly 

after 

Industrial 

Revolution. 

1750tol9Z2 


1750 


1922 


Chinese  history  qoes  back  at  least  to  ZOOO^ears  B.C.  China  becomes 

Republic-1911 

China  one  of  worlds  most  advanced  civilizations  up  to  1750    q\^\^^  isolated  from 

the  western  world; 

  , .  now  regarded  as  a 

Ruled  hy  c^reat  imperial  dynasties  primitive  civiliza- 

tion. 

Because  of  (great  re- 
sources she  has  been 
■TV  exploited  since  1800 

by  European  countries. 


Do  you  think  of  England  and  France  and  other  European  countries 
as  old  when  you  consider  the  age  of  China?  Four  thousand  years — thirty 
times  as  old  as  the  United  States  if  you  think  just  of  the  time  since  we 
became  independent.  If  you  think  of  our  history  as  including  all  the  time 
since  early  Colonial  days,  it  is  about  twenty  times  as  old. 

And  yet,  do  you  really  know  as  much  about  China  as  you  did  about 
England,  France  and  Germany?  Do  you  see  much  in  the  newspapers? 
Do  news  notices  appear  in  our  daily  papers  dated  from  Hongkong,  and 
Shanghai,  as  they  do  from  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  Antwerp,  Moscow,  Pet- 
rograd,  etc?  As  you  sit  down  to  dinner,  do  you  expect  to  find  foods  that 
come  from  China?  Do  we  use  Chinese  tools,  machinery,  and  the  like, 
as  we  use  such  manufactured  goods  made  in  Germany?  Are  woolens  from 
which  we  make  our  clothing  woven  in  China  as  they  are  so  frequently  in 
England  and  Scotland?  How  does  it  happen  that  we  have  so  much  to  do 
with  these  European  countries  and  yet  so  little  to  do  with  those  of  Asia? 

Did  you  know  that  once — and  not  so  very  long  ago — China  was  one  of 
the  wealthiest  and  most  advanced  nations  of  the  whole  world?  Look  at 
the  time  line  of  Fig.  31.  Do  you  see  that  during  hundreds  and  hundreds 
of  years  Europe  is  described  as  being  in  the  dark  ages?  They  had  no  great 
cities  with  fine  libraries  and  churches.  They  lived  crudely,  without  fine 
water  systems  and  very  much  dependent  upon  what  they  could  get  in  the 


74 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


way  of  a  living  from  the  land,  the  woods  and  the  streams.  In  fact  they 
lived  very  much  indeed  as  our  American  Indians  and  frontiersmen  did 
fifty  to  one  hundred  years  ago.  While  the  barbarians  of  Northern  Europe, 
the  Germans,  the  French  and  the  English  were  slowly  learning  to  live  in 
civilized  ways,  they  were  beginning  to  learn  more  about  the  wonderful 
country  in  the  far  east— Cathay  it  was  called. 

During  the  1200s  a  traveller  from  Genoa  went  on  a  long  and  danger- 
ous trip  through  Persia,  over  mountains  and  desert  lands  to  the  great  Chinese 
Empire.  His  name  was  Marco  Polo.  He  lived  there  for  many  years,  finally 
returning  home  to  tell  his  fellow  countrymen  about  the  wonders  of  the 
strange  land  in  which  he  had  been  staying.  While  in  China  Marco  Polo 
was  received  as  quite  a  favorite  of  the  Great  Khan,  as  the  ruler  was  called, 
and  so  was  able  to  travel  about  over  the  country.  When  he  came  back  to 
Europe  he  wrote  a  book  called  The  Travels  of  Marco  Polo  the  Venetian. 
This  book  was  afterwards  printed  and  read  very  widely  over  Europe.  Prob- 
ably Marco  Polo  exaggerated  the  things  that  he  had  seen  in  China,  but  he 
tells  us  of  a  country,  the  description  of  which  sounds  very  modern  indeed. 
Here  are  some  little  quotations  from  the  book.  The  first  tells  about  the 
kings'  palaces. 

CHINA  600  YEARS  AGO  AS  DESCRIBED  BY  MARCO  POLO 
"It  now  remains  to  speak  of  a  very  fine  palace  that  was  formerly  the 
residence  of  King  Facfur,  whose  ancestors  enclosed  with  high  walls  an 
extent  of  ground  ten  miles  in  compass,  and  divided  it  into  three  parts.  That 
in  the  center  was  entered  by  a  lofty  portal,  on  each  side  of  which  was  a 
magnificent  colonnade,  on  a  flat  terrace,  the  roofs  of  which  were  supported 
by  rows  of  pillars,  highly  ornamented  with  the  most  beautiful  azure  and 
gold.  The  colonnade  opposite  to  the  entrance,  at  the  further  side  of  the 
court,  was  still  grander  than  the  others,  its  roof  being  richly  adorned,  the 
pillars  gilt,  and  the  walls  on  the  inner  side  ornamented  with  exquisite  paint- 
ings, representing  the  histories  of  former  kings.  Here,  annually,  upon 
certain  days  consecrated  to  the  service  of  their  idols,  King  Facfur  was  ac- 
customed to  hold  his  court,  and  to  entertain  at  a  feast  his  principal  nobles, 
the  chief  magistrates,  and  the  opulent  citizens  of  Kin-sai. 

"Under  these  colonnades  might  be  seen,  at  one  time,  ten  thousand 
persons  suitably  accommodated  at  the  table.  This  festival  lasted  ten  or 
twelve  days,  and  the  magnificence  displayed  on  the  occasion,  in  silks,  gold, 
and  precious  stones,  exceeded  all  imagination ;  for  every  guest,  with  a  spirit 
of  emulation,  endeavoured  to  exhibit  as  much  finery  as  his  circumstances 
would  possibly  allow."  ' 

Does  that  sound  much  like  what  you  think  a  country  could  have  been 
650  years  ago? 

t-^^T^^^P'^^'^V  The  Travels  of  Marco  Polo,  The  Venetian,  pages  306-307 

E.  P.  Dutton  &.  (Company,  New  York,  1918. 


CHINA  :   AN  OLD  CIVILIZATION 


75 


Marco  Polo  thought  that  the  European  people  were  unfair  to  the  Chinese. 
He  says  this  about  their  food : 

.  "With  regard  to  food,  there  is  no  deficiency  of  it,  for  these  people,  especi- 
ally the  Tartars,  Cathaians,  and  inhabitants  of  the  province  of  Manji  (or 
Southern  China),  subsist,  for  the  most  part,  upon  rice,  panicum,  and  millet; 
which  three  grains  yield,  in  their  soil,  an  hundred  measures  for  one.  Wheat, 
indeed,  does  not  yield  a  similar  increase,  and  bread^not  being  in  use  with 
them,  it  is  eaten  only  in  the  form  of  vermicelli 'oT'Sf'  pastry.  The  former 
grains  thev  boil  in  milk  or  stew  with  their  meat.  With  them  no  spot  of 
earth  is  suffered  to  lie  idle,  that  can  possibly  be  cultivated ;  and  their  cattle 
of  different  kinds  multiply  exceedingly,  insomuch  that  when  they  take  the 
field,  there  is  scarcely  an  individual  that  does  not  carry  with  him  six,  eight, 
or  more  horses,  for  his  own  personal  use.  From  all  this  may  be  seen  the 
causes  of  so  large  a  population,  and  all  circumstances  that  enable  them  to 
provide  so  abundantly  for  their  subsistence."  ^ 

The  empire  saw  large  towns  and  villages  grow  up  even  in  those  ancient 
times  in  many  places.  We  know  from  Marco  Polo's  book  that  the  Chinese 
had  learned  even  then  to  be  fine  road  builders  and  that  they  had  many  well- 
bred  horses. 

From  the  city  of  Kanbalu  there  are  many  roads  leading  to  the  different 
provinces,  and  upon  each  of  these,  that  is  to  say,  upon  every  great  high  road, 
at  the  distance  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles,  accordingly  as  the  towns  hap- 
pen to  be  situated,  there  are  stations,  with  houses  of  accommodation  for 
travellers,  called  yamb  or  post-houses.  These  are  large  and  handsome  build- 
ings, having  several  well-furnished  apartments,  hung  with  silk,  and  provided 
with  everything  suitable  to  persons  of  rank.  Even  kings  may  be  lodged  at 
these  stations  in  a  becoming  manner,  as  every  article  required  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  towns  and  strong  places  in  the  vicinity;  and  for  some  of 
them  the  court  makes  regular  provision.  At  each  station  hour  hundred  good 
horses  are  kept  in  constant  readiness,  in  order  that  all  messages  going  and 
coming  upon  the  business  of  the  Grand  Khan,  and  all  ambassadors,  may  have 
relays,  and  leaving  their  jaded  horses,  be  supplied  with  fresh  ones."  ^ 

Today  we  think  of  China  as  being  very  backward  in  manufactures,  per- 
haps because  we  in  the  western  world  are  so  far  advanced.  Here  is  a  little 
account  which,  though  very  brief,  tells  us  that  they  must  have  known  a 
great  deal  about  making  things  from  metals. 

"Kobiam  is  a  large  town,  the  inhabitants  of  which  observe  the  law  of 
Mahomet.  They  have  plenty  of  iron,  qccarmii^  and  qndanicuni^  Here  they 
make  mirrors  of  highly  polished  steel,  of  a  large  size  and  very  handsome. 
Much  antimony  or  zinc  is  found  in  the  country,  and  they  procure  tutty 


i-Masefield,  John:  The  Travels  of  Marco  Polo,  pages  200-210.  E.  P.  Dutton  & 
Companv,  New  York,  1918. 

2Masefield,  John:  The  Travels  of  Marco  Polo,  The  Venetian,  pages  207-208- 
E.  P.  Dutton  '&  Company,  New  York,  1918. 


76 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


which  makes  an  excellent  qoUvrium;  together  with  spodium,  by  the  follow- 
ing process.  They  take  the  crude  ore  from  a  vein  that  is  known  to  yield 
such  as  is  fit  for  the  purpose,  and  put  it  into  a  heated  furnace.  Over  the 
furnace  they  place  an  iron  grating  formed  of  small  bars  set  close  together. 
The  smoke  or  vapour  ascending  from  the  ore  in  burning  attaches  itself  to 
the  bars,  and  as  it  cools  becomes  hard.  This  is  the  .tutty  :  whilst  the  gross 
and  heavy  part,  which  does  not  ascend,  but  remains  as  a  cinder  in  the  furnace, 
becomes  the  spodium."  ^ 

And  this  was  more  than  600  years  ago.  It  is  no  wonder  that  after  hear- 
ing Marco  Polo's  glowing  accounts  of  the  new  world  he  had  seen  in  the 
East,  they  wanted  to  reach  this  land  of  splendor  and  fabulous  wealth.  Of 
course  a  good  deal  of  his  account  was  exaggerated,  but  it  was  accepted  enough 
to  cause  navigators  and  merchants  in  Europe  to  risk  a  great  deal  to  try  to 
find  this  unknown  land.  You  know  the  story  of  how  they  did  it— of  Colum- 
bus, and  the  Cabots,  of  Magellan  and  the  various  Portugese,  the  French 
and  the  English  seamen  who  discovered  the  different  routes  to  the  Far  East. 


STORIES  OF  CHINA  TODAY 

But  now,  isn't  it  astonishing  to  find  after  600  years  have  passed  that  these 
Chinese  people,  instead  of  being  regarded  as  one  of  the  wealthiest  and  most 
advanced  countries,  are  the  most  humiliated  of  countries?  They  are  con- 
sidered as  very  backward  indeed.  Here  are  some  little  accounts  which  have 
been  written  by  recent  travellers  to  China.  The  first  one  gives  us  a  glimpse 
of  the  way  they  farm. 

'Tong  Hia  lives  in  a  village  of  three  hundred  persons,  in  which  about 
thirty  men  are  land-owners,  having  altogether  forty-five  acres  of  land.  Pong 
Hia  owns  two  acres,  inherited  from  the  father  who  adopted  him.  His  land 
is  worth  one  thousand  dollars.  His  family  consists  of  ten  persons.  He  is 
him^self  forty-six  years  old,  his  wife  is  forty-one,  his  son  is  twenty-two,  his 
son's  wife  is  twenty-one,  his  four  daughters  are  from  ten  to  seventeen,  and 
his  two  grandchildren  are  three  and  seven  years  old.  He  and  his  son  till  the 
land,  hiring  help  at  harvest-time,  and  weaving  straw  hats  on  rainy  days.  The 
women-folk  make  the  clothing,  rear  pigs  and  fowls,  and  do  all  the  house- 
work. Their  dwelling,  with  its  site,  is  \  alued  at  a  hundred  and  twenty  dol- 
lars, their  furniture  at  forty-four  dolhirs,  their  clothing  at  forty  dollars, 
their  farming  appliances  at  forty  dollars.  They  have  a  water-buffalo,  two 
hogs,  thirty  fowls,  ten  ducks,  a  pair  of  geese,  a  dog,  and  a  cat.  Last  year  Pong 
Hia  sold  twenty  dollars'  worth  of  rice  from  his  farm,  and  paid  $3.60  in 
taxes.    He  has  two  hundred  dollars  out  at  interest  at  eighteen  per  cent."  - 

1  Masefiold,  .Tohn:  The  Travels  of  Marco  I'olo.  The  Venetian  nae-e  7i 
E.  P.  niitton  &  Company,  New  York.  1918.  veneuan,    page  71. 

pauNl^Nc^'^'Yorkl^JlV.  P^^^^^  ^^"l^-    Macniillan  and  Com- 


CHINA  :  AN  OLD  CIVILIZATION 


77 


"The  farmers  live  in  villages,  isolated  dwellings  being  uncommon.  The 
villages  are  walled,  contain  no  wasted  space,  and  are  densely  peopled.  The 
wide-spreading,  flat  fields,  lying  along  the  river-banks  at  the  foot  of  the  hills, 
may  be  made  to  yield  a  constant  series  of  crops  without  interval  on  account  of 
winter  

"When  a  father  dies,  his  land  is  divided  equally  among  his  sons,  the  eldest 
receiving  an  additional  tenth  on  account  of  the  extra  expense  to  which  he  is 
put  in  worshipping  the  spirits  of  the  ancestors.  The  land  is  distributed  very 
generally,  though  unequally,  among  the  people,  and  is  usually  tilled  by  its 
peasant  proprietors.  Few  own  so  much  as  two  hundred  acres ;  one  who 
owns  ten  acres  is  reckoned  wealthy,  and  he  who  owns  one  acre  possesses  a 
competence  

"The  chief  expense  of  tillage  is  in  fertilizers,  beans  and  seeds  from  which 
the  oil  has  been  pressed  being  commonly  used,  at  an  outlay  of  from  six  to 
forty  and  an  average  of  twenty-four  dollars  upon  every  acre  of  land.  Be- 
sides this,  potato-peelings,  hair  from  shaven  heads,  and  all  other  vegetable 
and  animal  refuse  is  carefully  husbanded  and  methodically  applied  to  the 
soil.  The  clods  of  the  field  are  laid  up  into  little  ovens  to  retain  and  be  en- 
riched by  the  smoke  of  the  stubble  burned  under  neath  them.  Abode  houses, 
whose  walls  have  for  many  years  absorbed  the  fumes  of  a  kitchen  and  the 
exhalations  of  human  inmates,  are  pulverized  and  added  to  the  ever- 
hungry  earth.  Each  growing  plant  separately  receives  distinguished  con- 
sideration, a  scrap  of  tobacco-stalk  being  sometimes  put  beside  its  root  to 
destroy  underground  grubs,  while  its  leaves  are  frequently  examined  and 
sedulously  freed  from  vermin.   The  rotation  of  crops  is  always  practised. 

"As  no  milk,  butter,  nor  cheese  is  used,  the  only  quadruped  seen  on  the 
farm  is  the  water-buffalo,  or  the  zebu,  which  assists  in  ploughing  and  harrow- 
ing. Many  farmers  rear  ducks,  which  are  taken  to  the  fields  to  devour  the 
snails,  crabs,  and  young  frogs  which  thrive  there  at  planting-time.  Fowls 
often  accompany  the  harvesters,  picking  up  the  last  grains  left  among  the 
stubble."  ^ 

Do  these  stories  make  you  think  somewhat  of  the  way  the  Russians 
farm?  Certainly  not  at  all,  except  by  contrast,  of  the  way  we  farm  in  the 
United  States.  Practically  all  Americans  who  go  to  China  come  back  with 
stories  of  the  lack  of  sanitation  in  that  country.  They  always  tell  us  first  in 
describing  the  conditions,  that  Chinese  homes  have  no  bathrooms,  that  they 
are  not  piped  with  running  water  which  you  can  get  by  merely  turning  on 
the  faucet.  No  hot  air,  steam  or  hot  water  heating  systems  are  to  be  found  in 
Chinese  towns  and  cities.  Electric  lights,  or  electric  bells — such  things 
throughout  the  vast  expanse  of  that  country  are  practically  unknown.  Just 
imagine  cities  without  well-flushed  sewage  systems;  the  streets,  the  paved 
courts  and  the  homes  themselves  are  not  clean  according  to  our  idea  of  clean- 


1  Fielde,  Adele  M. :  A  Corner  of  Cathay,  pages  1-2,  3,  4-5.  Macmillan  &  Com- 
pany, New  York,  1894. 


78 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


liness.  It  really  is  a  marvel — so  these  recent  visitors  tell  us — that  the  popula- 
tion of  China  is  as  large  as  it  is,  and  still  continues  to  grow.  They  say  that 
even  the  bricks  of  the  floors  of  the  ordinary  homes  upon  w^hich  w^aste  of  all 
sorts  has  been  throw^n,  contain  enough  disease  germs  to  depopulate  all  Europe 
and  America  within  thirty  years. 

"I  was  shown  rapidly  through  the  ground-floor  of  the  house,  including 
the  kitchen  and  servants'  quarters,  but,  as  my  friend  had  invited  me  to  dinner 
the  following  day,  made  only  brief  memoranda  of  the  points  that  had  inter- 
ested me.  The  most  serious  matter  was  the  very  primitive  and  objectionable 
features  connected  with  the  sanitary  arrangements.  I  have  dealt  with  this 
subject  elsewhere,  but  must  insist  that  in  these  respects  the  Chinese  are  de- 
graded to  the  last  degree,  and  one  wonders,  if  such  conditions  prevail  through- 
out the  Empire,  how  the  nation  should  number  four  hundred  millions,  where- 
as, if  they  belonged  to  the  same  species  with  ourselves,  they  should  all  have 
been  swept  off  the  face  of  the  earth  centuries  ago.  Entering  a  room  called 
the  study,  or  library,  w^e  were  invited  to  sit;  a  servant  brought  us  a  light 
refreshment  consisting  of  fried  peanuts,  oranges,  and  a  little  root  which  had 
a  dehcious  crisp  taste.  The  root  was  dug  from  the  river-mud  and  was 
quite  new  to  me.  I  enjoyed  it,  not  having  seen  the  river.  Wondering  how 
I  should  dispose  of  my  orange-peel  and  peanut-shells,  I  was  told  to  throw 
them  on  the  floor!  The  floor,  it  may  be  added,  was  apparently  mother-earth, 
— damp,  cold,  and  nearly  black  in  color,  in  fact,  a  continuation  of  the  street 
surface.  Doubtless,  the  floor  was  tiled;  the  dirt,  however,  obscured  all 
traces  of  it."  ^  .  , 

And  what  about  Chinese  markets?    Read  what  Morse  has  to  say. 

"Their  markets  display  the  most  dubious  looking  messes,  dirty  fried  fish, 
dried  shrimps,  smoked  ducks,  a  bright  yellow  cheese-curd-looking  substance, 
small  seeds  of  some  kind  partially  sprouted,  little  bits  of  some  kind  of  a  nut 
done  up  in  a  fragment  of  fresh  palm-leaf,  large  shallow  trays  filled  with  the 
tiniest  dried  fish,  and  a  multitude  of  other  unknown  edibles."  " 

Perhaps  one  would  say  that  drug-stores  were  a  sign  of  advancement 
among  the  people.  You  can  hardly  go  into  a  town  of  any  size  in  America 
w^ithout  finding  a  well-stocked  drug  store.  What  about  China?  A  recent 
traveller  tells  us  that  "their  drug  stores  with  pounded  snakes,  dried  lizards, 
gall  stones  and  other  equally  absurd  substances  would  drive  a  modern  phar- 
macist stark  mad  to  contemplate." 

Once,  as  you  have  learned  from  one  of  the  quotations  from  Marco  Polo, 
the  temples  and  palaces  of  this  country  were  examples  of  fine  architecture. 
Now,  according  to  the  next  story,  the  Chinese  are  paying  less  attention  to 
such  things. 

1  Morse,  Edward  S.:  Glimpses  of  China  and  Chinese  Homes,  pages  20-21. 
Little,  Brown  and  Company,  Boston,  Mass.,  1902. 

2  Morse,  Edward  S. :  Glimpses  of  China  and  Chinese  Homes,  pagre  28 
liittle.  Brown  and  Company,  Boston,  Mass.,  1902. 


china:  an  old  civilization 


79 


'•On  our  way  to  the  house  where  we  were  to  dine,  we  stopped  at  a  few 
Buddist  temples,  and  these  were  so  dirty  and  dilapidated  that  any  descrip- 
tion of  their  lamentable  condition  would  seem  exaggerated.  It  was  shock- 
ing to  see  the  root  of  a  tree  prying  off  some  delicate  bit  of  stone  carving 
from  an  entablature,  and  no  one  in  the  land  with  wit  or  enterprise  enough 
to  cut  off  the  offending  root  and  save  the  structure."  ^ 

The  time  lines  of  "old"  and  ''new"  countries  and  the  stories  you  have 
read  of  China  tell  an  unusual  story  of  a  great  civilized  country  standing 
perfectly  still  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  while  most  other  countries  forged 
ahead. 

Why  have  such  countries  as  England,  France,  Germany  and  the  United 
States  become  "modern"  while  China  stood  still  where  she  was  in  1800? 
Why  has  she  not  adopted  machinery  on  her  farms,  sewer  and  water  systems 
in  her  cities?  Why  are  there  not  scores  of  thousands  of  miles  of  railroads 
all  over  China  proper  instead  of  a  paltry  6000? 

CHINA  IS  ISOLATED  FROM  THE  WESTERN  WORLD 

There  is  a  very  good  reason.  China  has  lived  by  herself  for  thousands 
of  years.  Never  has  she  shown  any  desire  until  the  last  20  to  30  years  to 
mingle  with  other  peoples,  to  interest  herself  in  the  affairs  of  Europe,  or  of 
Africa,  or  even  of  the  Near  East.  Her  thousands  of  years  of  history  do  not 
include,  as  did  the  careers  of  the  Persians,  or  the  Greeks,  or  the  Romans, 
or  the  English,  or  the  Germans,  a  trail  of  conquest  in  other  lands.  True 
enough,  she  pushed  west  to  the  north  mountain  boundaries,  but  never  be- 
yond. Until  the  last  century  these  same  boundaries  also  acted  as  powerful 
barriers  to  the  penetration  of  China  by  other  countries.  China  is  a  hard 
country  to  reach  by  land,  and  until  the  1500s  human  beings  had  learned  little 
about  traveling  by  water.  So  you  see  there  are  very  important  reasons  for 
Chinese  ignorance  of  the  machine  method  of  our  western  world,  perfectly 
good  reasons  why  she  has  lived  by  herself. 

Let  us  make  sure  first  that  we  know  where  China  is,  how  numerous  the 
Chinese  people  are,  and  what  kind  of  country  they  live  in. 

Where  is  China?  Find  it  on  the  world  map,  Fig.  2  and  locate  it  on  the 
wall  map  in  your  classroom.  Is  it  as  large  as  the  United  States  ?  Turn  to 
the  World  map,  Fig.  2,  check  it  up  by  reference  to  other  maps  in  your  school 
geography. 

A  clear  comparison  is  made  of  the  sizes  of  the  United  States  and  China  in 
Fig.  32.  If  one  should  travel  from  Boston  to  San  Francisco,  would  he  go 
as  far  as  he  would  if  he  traveled  from  Peking  to  Kashgar?  If  he  went  from 
Hardin,  in  Manchuria,  down  to  Canton,  would  he  have  to  go  farther  than 

^  Morse,  Edward  S.:  Glimpses  of  China  and  Chinese  Homes,  pages  2S-29. 
Little,  Brown  and  Company,  Boston,  Maps.,  lOO'i. 


8U 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


if  he  went  from  Portland,  Maine  to  Galveston  in  Texas  ?  On  the  map  you 
will  find  points  which  show  where  a  number  of  American  cities  are;  these 
will  help  you  to  get  an  idea  of  the  distances  in  the  two  countries. 

Sum  up  now  in  a  little  statement  in  your  notebook  your  impression  of 
the  territory  of  the  two  countries  and  distances  that  have  to  be  traveled  in 
the  two  countries. 

Study  the  maps  of  Fig.  23  China  really  consists  of  two  parts — what 
we  may  call /'China  proper"  and  four  outlying  regions.  Find  China  proper. 
See  if  you  can  locate  it  on  the  world  map.  Check  it  up  against  a  map  of  Asia 
in  your  geography.    The  Chinese  people  have  from  century  to  century  con- 


FiG  321 


trolled  more  than  just  this  little  strip  of  land  along  the  western  coast  where 
most  of  the  people  live.  . 

In  your  geography  turn  to  a  physical  map  of  Asia,  a  relief  map  will  be 
.most  helpful.  Look  first  at  the  level  plains  called  the  Plain  of  China  and 
the  Manchurian  Lowlands,  which  stretch  back  from  the  coast  in  the  Nan- 
king and  Shanghai  regions  more  than  500  miles.  What  two  great  rivers 
flow  into  the  Yellow  Sea  through  these  plains?  Locate  them  on  the  wall 
map.  Are  you  astonished  to  find  that  the  Hwang  River  and  Yangtze  River 
are  so  long?  Compare  them  on  the  map  of  the  United  States  with  the 
Mississippi  River.    Are  they  as  long  as  that,  or  longer? 

How  high  above  sea  level  is  this  so-called  Plain  of  China?  the  Manchur- 
ian lowlands? 

Now  turn  to  the  population  map  again.  In  wliat  particular  region  are 
the  people  of  China  hving  most  closely  together.    Compare  this  map  of 

•  Howinan,   Isaiah:     "The  New  WorUl."     Copyricrht  World  Book   Co.,  Yonkers, 
N.  Y. 


china:  an  old  civilization 


81 


Fig.  3  with  the  physical  map  in  your  geography,  which  you  are  now  study- 
ing. What  direct  connection  do  you  see  between  the  "lay  of  the  land"  and 
where  the  people  are  living  ? 

Find  on  the  map  the  desert  of  Gobi.  Locate  it  on  the  wall  map.  Are 
there  people  living  there?  Find  the  East  China  highlands.  How  high 
above  sea  level  are  these  highlands?  How  do  they  compare  with  the  height 
of  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  ? 

CHINA  HEMMED  IN  ON  LAND  AND  SEA 

From  your  study  of  the  physical  map  of  Asia,  do  you  see  how,  on  the  west, 
northwest  and  southwest  China  is  hemmed  in  by  great  mountain  chains, 
some  of  them  the  largest  in  the  world  ?  Look  at  the  enormous  Himalayas, 
north  of  India,  twenty  to  twenty-nine  thousand  feet  high.  Get  the  feelmg 
of  the  tremendous  obstacle  that  the  Altai  Mountains  are,  the  Tien  Shang 
the  Hindu  Kush,  and  the  Kuenlun.  Then  too,  even  if  invaders  climbed 
these  tremendous  mountains,  note  how  difficult  it  would  be  to  traverse  the 
thousands  of  miles  of  desert  land  that  lies  eastward,  to  the  thickly  settled 
lands  of  the  Chinese  people  on  the  coast.  Imagine  traveling  weeks  across  the 
terrible  Desert  of  Gobi ! 

In  all  these  centuries  Chinese  isolation  has  been  nearly  complete.  On 
the  southeast  and  on  the  northeast,  of  course,  the  barriers  are  not  so  great, 
the  mountains  are  not  so  high.  But,  you  must  remember  that  neither  on  the 
north,  nor  on  the  south  have  there  been  people  who  could  teach  China  much. 
Her  civilization  up  to  1800  was  as  advanced,  if  not  superior  to.  even  those  of 
western  European  countries. 

WHY  SO  FEW  RAILROADS  IN  ASIA? 

And  almost  up  to  the  present  time  the  isolation  of  China  has  continued. 
You  will  see  more  clearly  how  difficult  the  land  conditions  are  in  central 
Asia,  if  you  will  study  the  railway  map  of  Asia,  Fig.  32A.  Check  this  upon 
a  physical  map  in  your  geography. 

Where  do  the  railroad  lines  run?  Are  there  any  railroads  going  directly 
east  from  the  Mediterranean  to  Peking?  Of  course  the  map  shows  that 
if  the  land  were  level  the  shortest  and  probably  the  cheapest  line  that  could 
be  made  would  be  one  bearing  on  40  degrees  north  latitude  from  Constanti- 
nople to  Peking.  Does  the  map  show  that  there  is  such  a  railroad  ?  No,  not 
clear  through.  About  half  way  railroads  have  been  built, — a  few  isolated 
lines.  From  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian,  and  from  the  east  side  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  southeast  through  to  Bokhara,  somewhat  beyond  Samarkand. 

Why  do  you  think  they  stop  there  ?  See  if  you  can  find  the  answer  by 
studying  the  relief  map  or  a  physical  map  of  Europe.  Is  it  clear  to  you  why 
a  reasonably  straight  railroad  could  not  be  run  from  Constantinople  to 


82 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Peking.  Also,  why  nobody  has  constructed  a  railroad  from  Bombay  straight 
northeast  to  Peking,  from  Calcutta  or  from  any  other  principal  city  of  that 
region  ? 

But  a  railroad  line  has  been  built  through  the  northern  part  of  Asia — 
the  great  Siberian  Railroad.  It  starts  at  Petrograd,  in  Russia,  runs  down 
through  Moscow  and  then  straight  through  Russian  territory  to  Omsk, 
thence  around  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Baikal.  There  it  branches  into 
two  divisions  running  through  Manchuria,  connecting  with  Harbin,  Vladi- 
vostock,  Mukden  and  Peking.  From  there  it  runs  south.  The  principal 
cities  of  China  are  connected  along  the  East  China  plain,  where  the  soil  is 
reasonably  level,  and  where  it  was  not  too  expensive  to  build  railroads. 

Why  do  you  think  they  built  that  Russian  railroad  when  they  could  not 
build  one  straight  through  ?  Again  the  physical  map  will  tell  you.  What  is 
the  lay  of  the  land  along  the  course  of  this  Russian  railroad? 


Fig.  32 a 


But  there  is  another  way  to  answer  the  question.  During  the  past 
100  years  Russia  advanced  in  one  of  the  most  marvelous  movements  of  a 
great  people  from  the  very  eastern  edges  of  Europe  straight  across  thousands 
of  miles  of  old,  isolated  territory  to  the  extreme  eastern  edge  of  Asia.  Russia 
took  in  more  territory  on  this  march  than  she  had  within  her  European 
boundaries.  What  an  enormous  stretch  of  land  this  is  from  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains to  the  Sea  of  (^kliotsk !  Now,  remember  that  the  Russians  had  always 
been  classed  with  the  modern  progressive  nations  of  Europe.  Coming  under 
the  impetus  of  the  industrial  developments  of  France,  England,  Germany 


CHINA  :   AN  OLD  CIVILIZATION 


83 


and  the  United  States  they  saw  clearly  that  the  surest  way  to  extend  their 
empire  and  to  hold  the  territory  would  be  to  have  rapid  and  sure  means  of 
transportation.  In  these  days,  of  course,  that  means  railroads.  So  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railroad  was  built. 

MAP  EXERCISE 

On  a  blank  map  of  Asia  trace  the  existing  railroads.  Use  Fig.  32A  and 
a  map  in  your  geography. 

As  you  do  this,  study  carefully  the  way  in  which  the  route  of  each  rail- 
road is  determined  by  the  topography  of  the  country — that  is  by  the  "lay  of 
the  land".  If  you  would  like  to  sum  up  the  whole  railway  situation  for 
different  parts  of  the  world,  so  as  to  get  a  clearer  view  of  the  isolation  of 
Asia  and  incidentally  of  China,  the  table  on  the  railway  map  of  Asia,  Fig. 
32A  will  help  you.  Notice  that  Asia,  including  India,  French  Indo-China 
and  Siberia,  has  only  69,000  miles  of  railway.  On  the  other  hand,  little 
Europe,  only  about  one-fifth  as  large  as  Asia,  has  217,000  miles  of  railroad — 
three  times  as  much.  North  America,  almost  the  same  size  as  i\sia,  has  more 
than  five  times  as  many  miles  of  railways. 

Now,  what  about  China  itself?  China  is  larger  than  the  United  States 
proper— nearly  4,000,000  square  miles.  The  United  States  has  270,000 
miles  of  railroad  track.  In  1920  there  were  only  6,000  miles  of  railroad 
track  open  to  traffic  in  China.  This  includes  857  miles  in  Manchuria  con- 
structed by  the  British.  2300  miles  more  are  under  construction.  So  we  find 
China  a  country  larger  than  the  United  States  with  only  1-20  as  many 
miles  of  railway. 

Furthermore,  it  was  not  until  1876  that  China  had  any  railways  at  all. 
In  that  year  the  Wosung  line  was  opened.  Even  this  was  built  entirely  by 
Europeans.  Railways  in  the  United  States  began  about  1830  and  by  1876 
(when  the  first  Chinese  railroad  was  being  built)  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  had  been  joined  by  a  great  transcontinental  line.  Turn  back  to  the 
railroad  map  of  the  United  States  (Fig.  29)  ;  also  to  a  map  of  Russia 
in  your  geography.  Now  compare  them  with  this  railroad  map  which  shows 
Asia's  railways.  What  an  interesting  example  of  the  isolation  of  Eastern 
Asia ! 


What  about  water  transportation?  Here  too  China  has  practised  her 
habit  of  living  alone.  For  years  she  has  used  her  great  rivers  for  trans 
portation,  the  Hwang  and  the  Yangste.  Large  vessels,  even  ocean  going 
vessels,  can  go  today  clear  up  the  Yangste  River  to  Hankow^  a  distance  of 
500  miles.  Imagine  ocean  going  vessels  sailing  up  the  Mississippi  to  St.  Louis 
or  to  Minneapolis,  or  up  the  Hudson  and  through  the  barge  canal  into  the 
Great  Lakes!  Many  progressive  Americans  hope  that  sometime  our  inland 
waterways  will  be  developed  so  that  ocean-going  ships  can  do  that,  but  at 
the  present  time  this  is  impossible. 


84 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


China  proper,  with  its  great  rivers  has  moved  its  freight  slowly  but 
very  economically  by  crude  river  craft.  Only  within  the  last  few  years  has 
it  developed  steamboat  traffic,  and  almost  not  at  all  has  it  developed  ocean- 
going trade. 

For  example,  in  1918  the  ships  that  entered  Chinese  ports  totaled  80 
milhon  tons  in  freight  capacity.  Of  these  30  million  tons  were  British,  and 
25  million  tons  were  Japanese.  In  other  words,  almost  three-fourths  of  the 
foreign  shipping  that  entered  Chinese  ports  were  from  these  two  nations — 
Great  Britain  and  Japan.  22  million,  hardly  one-fourth,  were  Chinese. 
Other  nations  contributed  small  amounts.  The  United  States  had  one 
million,  one-eightieth  of  all.  Does  this  help  to  confirm  what  you  have 
learned  about  English  superiority  in  foreign  trade? 

IS  CHINA  SELF-SUFFICIENT? 

You  have  learned  one  very  real  reason  why  China  has  not  kept  up  to 
date  and  made  use  of  her  great  resources  as  western  countries  have.  The 
preceding  readings  and  exercises  have  been  planned  to  teach  you  this. 

Summarize  what  you  now  know  about  this  matter. 

But  there  is  another  very  real  reason  why  China  has  not  progressed 
since  1800.  She  has  not  felt  any  need  for  changing  her  ways  of  doing  things. 
China  has  been  satisfied  to  jog  along  as  she  has  done  for  thousands  of  years. 
Why  should  she  establish  great  factories  and  use  new  types  of  time  saving 
machines  when  she  had  300  million  people  for  a  tremendous  labor  supply? 
Only  one  other  country  in  the  world  (what  is  that?)  can  rival  China  in  its 
labor  supply.    Look  at  the  bar  graphs  on  the  population  map  of  Fig.  3. 

THE  CHINESE  PEOPLE  ONE-FIFTH  OF  THE  WORLD'S  POPULATION 
Do  you  know  how  many  people  there  are  in  the  world?  Turn  back  to 
Fig.  3.  How  many  are  there?  Which  are  the  largest  countries?  Which  is 
the  very  largest  ?  How  many  times  larger  than  the  United  States  is  China  ? 
Are  you  astonished  to  find  this?  How  many  times  larger  than  Russia  is 
China?  Is  it  larger  or  smaller  than  India?  How  many  times  larger  than 
the  United  Kingdom  alone  is  China? 

Here  tucked  away  largely  on  this  narrow  plain  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  Orient  is  the  largest  and  oldest  people  in  the  world.  If  you  put  India 
with  them  and  study  Asia  as  a  whole,  one  is  astonished  to  find  that  more 
than  half  of  the  world  is  included  within  that  small  area.  Look  at  your 
world  population  map.  Study  also  the  map  of  Fig.  32A  which  compares 
the  five  chief  continents,  Asia,  Africa,  Australasia,  America  and  Europe. 
How  do  Asia  and  America  compare  in  number  of  square  miles?    They  are 

 .-.jJi^j^.Ji^.\^^:.^....    How  do  they  compare  in  population?    Asia  has 

......d-iLk  '     times  as  many  people. 

Now  contrast  the  size  of  Asia  with  the  size  of  Europe.  How  many 
times  larger  is  Asia  than  Europe?    How  many  times  larger  in  population 


china:  an  old  civilization 


85 


is  it?  Is  this  not  a  surprising  example  of  the  way  in  which  some  modern 
industrial  nations  have  developed  populations  far  larger  in  proportion  to 
territory  than  have  the  great  agricultural  countries  like  China  and  India? 

Now  compare  the  population  of  Asia  with  that  of  America.  The  terri- 
tories of  the  two  are  almost  exactly  the  same.  But  Asia  has  more  than  six 
times  as  many  people  as  America.  How  do  you  reconcile  this  fact  with  the 
comparison  of  Europe  and  Asia  ? 

CHINA  A  SELF-SUFFICIENT  FARMING  NATION 
A  mammoth  population  living  in  one  of  the  largest  separate  territories 
of  the  earth — can  it  support  itself?  Is  it  in  Russia's  present  situation  of 
having  to  beg  for  bread?  Does  China  have  such  outstanding  famines  that 
the  United  States  and  other  great  food  producing  nations  periodically  have 
to  ship  food  to  her?  In  the  main,  No.  For  at  least  4,000  years  China  has 
been  the  home  of  a  great  agricultural  civilization. 

There  is  a  very  important  geographical  reason  for  this.  It  has  a  soil  as 
fertile  as  the  soil  of  any  other  large  region  in  the  world.  The  fertility  of 
the  soil  of  China  proper  is  very  much  greater  than  that  of  the  soil  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  United  States.  You  will  read  later  how  Americans 
have  abused  their  soil  by  planting  the  same  crop  on  it  year  after  year,  and 
by  not  fertiHzing  it  properly.  You  will  study  how,  as  the  American  people 
used  up  their  land ;  they  were  able  to  move  westward,  first  to  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  Valleys,  and  then  even  to  the  far  Oregon  country.  But  the 
Chinese  people  living  in  the  same  place  for  thousands  of  years  learned  that 
they  must  take  the  greatest  care  of  their  soil. 

For  thousands  of  years  they  have  farmed  the  same  land  over  and  over 
again,  and  still  it  shows  no  signs  of  being  worn  out.  In  the  northern  part 
of  China  proper  is  the  loess,  a  very  rich  soil — in  some  places  a  hundred  feet 
deep.  It  is  thought  that  this  very  deep  farming  soil  was  built  up  by  the 
dust  which  was  blown  for  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  from  the  plains 
of  central  Asia.  The  soil  in  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  China  proper 
is  quite  different.  This  region  is  a  great  alluvial  plain  and  has  been  formed 
by  the  muddy  waters  of  the  Yangste  and  the  Yellow  Rivers.  As  these 
rivers  flow  down  through  the  lowland  of  the  east  China  plain,  they  deposit 
large  quantities  of  a  rich  soil  on  the  flats.  Throughout  the  centuries  of 
China's  history  this  soil  has  been  constantly  built  up. 


We  must  not  forget  however,  that  even  the  best  of  soils  will  wear  out 
in  a  few  hundred  years,  probably  less,  unless  the  people  take  care  to  use  it 
wisely.  What  does  it  mean  to  use  soil  wisely?  Well,  for  one  thing,  it 
means  to  use  the  proper  amount  of  fertilizer.  In  your  study  of  science  and 
agriculture  later  you  will  learn  more  of  the  details  of  how  fertilizer  acts 
upon  soils.    Of  all  the  people  in  the  world  the  Chinese  have  practised  best 


86 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


the  fertilizing  of  the  soil.  And  in  addition,  since  they  have  had  such  great 
numbers  of  people,  their  labor  supply  was  so  enormous  that  each  little  piece 
of  land  could  be  tended  to  with  the  greatest  care. 

Then  too,  the  people  of  China  have  been  very  industrious.  They  really 
make  us  think  very  much  of  the  people  throughout  the  central  and  northern 
parts  of  the  United  States  in  their  vigorous  ways  of  doing  things.  Probably 
one  reason  for  that  is  that  China  proper  lies  almost  entirely  in  the  temperate 
zone.  Turn  to  a  map  in  your  geography,  which  shows  the  climatic  zones. 
Are  you  astonished  to  find  that  central  and  northern  China  proper  and  the 
United  States  are  in  almost  exactly  the  same  latitude?  Peking  and  Phila- 
delphia, New  York  and  Chicago  are  almost  exactly  in  the  same  latitude,  40 
de  grees  north.  This  temperate  zone  in  which  we  find  ourselves  is  marked 
by  quite  sharp  seasonal  changes.  You  know  how  it  becomes  very  warm  in 
most  parts  of  the  United  States  in  summer  and,  on  the  other  hand,  quite 
cold  and  crisp  during  four  or  five  months  of  the  autumn  and  winter.  Of 
course  this  is  not  so  true  of  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
we  are  quite  inclined  to  feel  that,  this  has  an  effect  upon  the  people  who  are 
compelled  to  live  in  such  climates.  It  is  hard  to  farm,  manufacture,  run 
trains  and  do  all  sorts  of  hand  and  brain  labor  in  an  enervating  climate.  So 
let  us  not  forget  that  for  thousands  of  years  the  Chinese  have  been  vigorous, 
hard  working  and  thrifty  people,  huge  in  number  and  living  very  closely 
together  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia. 

Now  with  such  unusual  land  resources  combined  with  a  favorable  climate, 
has  China  been  able  to  support  her  own  people?  As  one  reads  the  news- 
papers and  magazines  year  after  year  does  he  find  such  startling  appeals  for 
help  as  he  has  recently  in  the  case  of  Russia  ?  Does  China  export  food  ?  Does 
she  import  foods?  How  much  wheat  does  she  raise?  How  much  corn? 
How  much  rice?  Can  she  stand  on  her  own  feet  in  producing  things  for 
her  people? 

Turn  back  to  the  wheat  map  of  Fig.  4.  Where  does  China  stand  in 
the  list  of  countries?  In  production  of  wheat?  Where  does  she  stand  in 
production  per  inhabitant?    Does  China  export  wheat?    Does  she  import  it? 

.  What  about  corn?  How  much  corn  does  she  raise?  How  does  she 
stand  in  the  list  of  countries  raising  the  largest  amount?  Are  the  Chinese 
people  users  of  corn?    Does  she  export  corn?    Does  she  import? 

These  questions  concerning  exports  and  imports  can  be  answered  from 
the  next  table.  (The  following  is  copied  from  page  747,  Statesmen's  Year 
Book  1920,  Imports  &  Exports.) 

Study  the  table  carefully.  What  food  stuffs  did  China  export  in  large 
quantities  in  1918?  Does  it  look  to  you  as  though  China  was  one  of  the 
great  exporting  nations  of  the  world  ?  Is  there  any  kind  of  manufactured 
goods  which  China  exports  in  really  large  quantities?  Are  there  any  raw 
materials  which  she  supplies  to  other  countries  in  quantity? 


CHINA  :  AN  OLD  CIVILIZATION 


87 


What  are  her  chief  imports?  Do  you  get  the  impression  from  the  study 
that  you  have  made  of  China  that  she  is  a  great  industrial  nation?  How 
much  light  does  this  table  throw  upon  that  question? 


Imports  1918 

Exports  1918 

H.  K.  Taels  i 
Opium  520,000 
Cotton  Goods  151,380,423 
Woolen  Goods  3,201,329 
Metals  37,637,111 
Rice  22,776,933 
Cigarettes  23,983,563 
Coal  12,593,479 
Fish  12,566,727 

  H.  K.  Taels 

Yellow  Beans  14,339,023 
Beancake  29,339,023 
Raw  Cotton  37,887,337 
Bean  Oil  24,981,240 
Silk,  raw  and  manuf'd  108,180,591 
Cow  and  Buffalo  Hides  13,470,376 
Xin  11,009,067 
Xea  14,066,872 

We  must  not  think  that  because  China  is  an  agricultural  nation  that  she 
does  not  have  great  industrial  resources.  Look  at  the  iron  and  coal  graphs 
of  Figs.  33  and  16.  Did  you  know  that  each  one  of  the  18  provinces  of 
China  proper  has  deposits  of  coal  which  can  be  worked?  A  few  are  being 
worked  due  to  the  fact  that  Europeans— English,  French  and  Germans,  to- 
gether with  progressive  Japanese  have  bought  up  the  land  and  have  taken 
to  mining  the  coal.  In  one  province  alone  one  of  the  German  geologists 
has  estimated  that  there  is  enough  coal  to  last  the  entire  world  for  many 
centuries.  (This  is  only  an  estimate  of  one  man,  remember).  When  we 
realize  that  the  known  coal  fields  probably  will  not  last  more  than  100  years, 
perhaps  not  that  long,  this  great  mineral  resource  will  make  China  one  of 
the  most  important  industrial  nations  in  the  world  in  the  near  future. 

China  is  the  world's  largest  producer  of  antimony.  She  has  large  de- 
posits of  lead  and  tin  and  oil.  Look  in  the  Statesmen's  Year  Book  or  the 
World  Almanac  or  in  any  such  statistical  book,  and  you  will  find  that  Chma 
exports  large  quantities  of  tin.  The  table  above  shows  that  in  1918  more  than 
$12,000,000  worth  of  tin  was  exported.  Oil  is  attracting  our  attention  now 
as  the  coming  fuel  of  the  industrial  world.  China  has  large  deposits  of  oil. 
She  is  believed  to  have  the  greatest  resources  of  iron  in  all  the  countries  of 
the  earth.  These  iron  deposits— for  example,  those  in  the  Hankow  region- 
are  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Japanese.  Since  Japan  is  encroaching  so  much 
on  Manchuria,  she  will  also  control  the  great  iron  and  steel  resources  of 
that  region. 

If  you  think,  therefore,  how  tremendously  important  in  this  industrial 
world  coal  and  iron  are,  you  will  see  how  well  China  is  fitted  to  become  one 
of  the  great  manufacturing  countries  of  the  globe;  all  the  more  so,  be- 
cause these  mineral  resources  are  owned,  and  sometime  will  be  developed, 
by  a  people  as  industrious,  as  numerous  and  as  intelligent  as  any  people  in 
the  world. 


iQne  Tael  is  nearly  $1.25  in  our  money. 


88 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


Is  it  clear  to  you  now  whether  China  can  live  by  herself?  Is  she  Self- 
sufficient  ? 

Write  a  summary  in  your  notebook  of  the  reasons  why  China  has  not 
kept  up  to  date. 

CHINA  THE  PREY  OF  EUROPEAN  NATIONS. 

But  even  though  China  has  wanted  to  be  left  alone  the  European  powers 
would  not  do  so.  For  nearly  a  hundred  years  they  have  gone  into  Asia, 
China  as  well  as  India,  and  have  taken  control  of  ports,  railroads  and  mines  ; 
have  set  up  their  own  courts  and  have  even  run  the  post  offices.  To  Amer- 
icans, brought  up  to  think  that  each  people  should  carry  on  its  own  affairs, 
it  comes  with  great  shock  to  learn  the  high-handed  and  mercenary  way  in 
which  these  things  have  been  done. 

Imagine  how  you  would  feel  if  the  French  and  the  Germans  had  de- 
manded ports  on  Long  Island  and  the  New  Jersey  coast,  so  that  they  could 
command  the  entrance  to  New  York  City ;  if  the  English  had  seized  Phil- 
adelphia; if  the  Russians  had  taken  Baltimore  by  force;  if  the  Italians 
had  stationed  thousands  of  soldiers  in  Boston  and  Portsmouth;  if  Japan 
had  garrisoned  its  troops  from  San  Francisco  to  Seattle;  if  Argentina  or 
other  South  American  countries  had  sailed  into  the  harbor  of  Galveston  and 
occupied  it  by  force.  In  other  words,  imagine  how  we  would  feel  if  our 
ports  had  been  forcibly  taken  away  from  us  by  other  countries.  Think  of 
what  humiliation  we  would  feel  if  Russia  operated  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral Railroad!  If  Italy  controlled  the  great  Pennsylvania  Railway  be- 
tween New  York  and  Chicago;  if  Japan  administered  the  great  Northern 
and  Canadian  Pacific  Railroads  and  the  Oregon  Short  Line;  if  an  English 
corporation  took  away  from  American  owners  the  great  anthracite  coal 
mines  of  Pennsylvania!  Does  this  seem  preposterous  to  you?  It  is  exactly 
what  has  happened  in  the  case  of  China's  ports,  China's  railways  and  China's 
resources  of  iron,  coal  and  oil. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  go  into  a  discussion  of  European  domination  of 
Asia.  When  we  come  to  the  last  pamphlet  of  the  year — that  on  **Inter- 
national  Relations" — you  will  study  this  problem  carefully.  For  the  time 
being  therefore  keep  in  mind  the  essential  facts  we  have  learned  concern- 
ing China.  (1)  her  great  resources;  (2)  her  stagnation  in  industry;  (3) 
her  labor  supply;  (4)  her  industrious  people;  (5)  her  careful  farming; 
(6)  her  small  farms;  (7)  her  rich  soil;  (8)  her  long  history;  (9)  her 
position  as  an  "advanced"  nation  prior  to  1750. 

You  should  be  able  now  to  stand  on  your  feet  and  convince  anybody 
that  China  is  self-sufficient,  although  very  backward  in  industry  and  agri- 
culture; and  that  in  spite  of  her  backwardness  it  is  possible  that  she  may 
again  become  one  of  the  great  powers  of  the  world. 


V.    FRANCE  AND  GERMANY— MANUFACTURERS  AND 

FARMERS 


"When  American  troops  first  went  into  the  front  line  trenches  in  France 
they  were  given  the  quietest  sectors  on  the  western  front. 

''Not  a  man  had  been  killed  in  that  part  of  the  front  since  the  war  began, 
the  French  troops  whom  we  believed  told  us. 

"At  one  place  along  that  front  there  was  a  Httle  wineshop  out  in  No  Man's 
Land.  We  used  to  patronize  it  during  the  day  while  the  Germans  would 
get  their  refreshments  there  at  night. 

"These  are  typical  of  statements  made  by  Yank  officers  and  men  who 
got  their  trench  training  in  that  sector. 

"As  every  one  knows,  this  area  whose  quiet  conditions  made  it  suitable 
for  the  training  of  new  troops  to  trench  life  was  along  the  Lorraine  front. 
Few  people  in  the  United  States,  it  seems,  have  been  curious  enough  to  ask 
why  this  particular  part  of  the  western  front  should  have  been  so  quiet.  But 
not  so  in  France  where  the  importance  of  this  region  is  much  more  widely 
known  than  it  is  in  this  country.  The  Lorraine  front  aroused  a  discussion 
in  the  press  whose  warmth,  dampened  considerably  by  a  vigilant  censor,  has 
since  the  war  brought  about  a  long  debate  in  the  French  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, followed  by  an  official  investigation  by  a  committee  of  the  parliament. 

"It  must  be  said  also  that  the  quietness  of  the  Lorraine  front  puzzled 
some  of  the  American  soldiers  who  were  in  that  sector.  Just  a  few  miles 
behind  them  they  knew  the  French  iron  mines  and  smelters  were  working  at 
top  speed  for  the  production  of  raw  material  for  war  munitions.  And  they 
could  look  over  the  German  lines  into  that  part  of  France  held  by  the  enemy 
and  into  Lorraine  and  see  the  iron  mines  and  smelters  there  at  work  for  the 
production  of  shells  that  they  suspected  were  destined  for  them.  And  on 
the  front  which  separated  the  producers  of  munitions  for  friend  and  foe 
reigned  quiet."  ^ 

Isn't  it  amazing  that  the  most  valuable  lands  on  the  borderland  of  France 
and  Germany  were  for  four  years  almost  uncontested !  Neither  the  French 
nor  the  German  generals  were  throwing  shells  into  this  very  important  region 
where  the  ammunition,  the  gun  carriages  and  the  necessary  machines  of  war- 
fare were  being  made. 

On  a  map  of  Europe  find  Lorraine.  Now  find  Briey.  Note  what  a 
small  region  this  is.  From  the  province  of  Lorraine  in  1913  came  29  million 
of  the  36  million  tons  of  iron  ore  produced  throughout  Germany.  Imagine, 

iFrom  Streit,  Clarence  K. :  "Where  Iron  is  There  is  the  Fatherland."  B.  W. 
Huebsch,  New  York  City. 


90 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


80  per  cent  of  all  the  iron  that  the  Germans  had  in  that  year  before  the  World 
War!  Right  across  the  boundary  line  in  France  the  Department  of  the 
Meurthe-et-Mosselle,  which  had  been  left  to  France  when  Lorraine  was 
seized  by  the  Germans  in  1871,  came  19,800,000  of  the  21^  million  tons 
of  iron  produced  in  all  France! 

In  1913  therefore  92  per  cent  of  her  entire  production  came  from  this 
little  region.  Now  this  body  of  iron  extended  through  the  German  Lor- 
raine district  across  the  frontier  line  between  the  two  countries,  and  formed 
in  France  what  is  known  as  the  Basin  of  Briey.  From  this  small  Basin  came 
70  per  cent  of  all  the  iron  ore  produced  in  France.  It  is  interesting  to  lind 
that  after  the  Germans  had  won  the  War  of  1870,  (which,  by  the  way,  was 
probably  fought  in  large  part  for  the  control  of  the  valuable  Lorraine  iron 
basin)  they  seized  Lorraine.  Queerly  enough  they  left  Briey  to  France. 
Why?  Simply  because  they  thought  the  iron  ore  there  was  of  little  value. 
It  was  not  long,  however,  before  they  found  that,  by  the  use  of  a  new  pro- 
cess, the  iron  ore  in  the  French  part  of  the  Basin  could  be  used ;  it  was,  in 
fact,  really  superior  to  that  in  Lorraine.  During  the  past  fifty  years  iron 
mining  and  smelting  has  grown  at  a  marvellous  rate  in  this  French  Basin. 

Of  course,  when  the  World  War  broke  out  in  1914,  the  Germans  made 
their  first  rush  across  the  line  at  this  point  and,  since  they  only  had  to  go  a 
few  miles,  they  took  nearly  all  the  Basin  and  remained  in  control  of  it  until 
the  end  of  the  World  War.  There  can  be  no  doubt  at  all  of  the  tremendous 
importance  to  the  Germans  of  the  possession  of  Briey.  Before  the  World 
War  Germany  imported  14  million  tons  of  iron  each  year  and  before  1913 
France  stood  third  in  exporting  iron  to  Germany.  In  fact,  in  1913,  France 
passed  Spain  in  exporting  iron  to  Germany  and  shipped  3,800,000  tons  from 
the  Briey  Basin,  only  700,000  tons  less  than  the  entire  amount  which  Ger- 
many imported  from  Sweden  in  that  year.  Of  course,  the  World  War  in- 
creased Germany's  need  for  iron  tremendously,  and  in  addition  the  block- 
ade cut  off  her  supply  from  Spain.  Is  it  not  astonishing  to  find,  however, 
that  by  August,  1915,  the  production  oi  cast  iron  in  Germany  rose  so  fast  that 
it  was  within  half  a  million  tons  of  what  it  had  been  before  the  World  War 
when  Germany  had  to  import  nearly  half  of  her  iron  ore  from  Sweden, 
France  and  Spain?  "According  to  a  statement  made  on  the  floor  of  the 
French  Chamber  of  Deputies  on  February  14,  1919,  by  Mr.  Loucheur,  a 
munition  maker,  who  during  the  latter  part  of  the  War  was  Minister  of 
Munitions,  and  who  since  the  armistice  has  been  Minister  of  Industrial  Re- 
organization, the  Germans  by  their  exploitation  of  the  Briey  Basin  during 
the  War  took  14  million  tons  of  iron  ore  from  its  mines,  only  a  little  less 
than  they  would  have  imported  from  it  in  normal  times  of  peace." 

Is  this  not  a  striking  illustration  of  the  importance  of  great  mineral  de- 
posits at  a  particular  place  upon  the  face  of  the  earth.    Just  think  how  the 


FRANCE  AND  GERMANY 


91 


fortunes  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  people  rested  so  largely  upon  this  small 
iron  basin,  only  a  few  miles  square!  At  a  later  time  we  will  learn  more  of 
the  importance  of  such  deposits. 

Have  you  learned  enough  from  this  account  to  answer  this  question: 
Are  France  and  Germany  industrial  countries?  If  you  travelled  through 
France  and  Germany  would  you  expect  to  find  many  cities  with  large  manu- 
facturing plants?  Or  would  you  expect  to  find  hundreds  of  little  villages 
scattered  about  over  the  countryside  with  very  few  railroads  and  only  occa- 
sional towns  and  cities?   This  was  what  you  learned  was  true  in  Russia. 

Turn  back  to  the  table  of  page  53.  This  will  help  you  to  tell  whether 
France  is  almost  solely  an  agricultural  country  like  Russia?  How  does  it 
help  you  to  answer  that  question? 


Countries 


IRON 

Production  WM  Consumption 
Expressed  in  percent  of  worlds  production  and  consumption 
10         20        30        40        50        60        70        80  90 


United 
States 


Luronburg  W^^Mm\ 


GermanN/  andl 


United 

Kinqdona  V/////////A 


France 


Russia 


Belgium  ^ 


Austria 
Hungary 


Sweden 


P 

Spam 


Fig.  33. 


Fig.  33  supplies  you  with  further  data.  Which  are  the  four  great  iron 
producing  countries  of  the  world?  Is  France  one  of  them?  Is  Germany? 
Does  this  conclusion  check  with  the  one  you  have  drawn  from  the  table  on 
page  53.  What  per  cent  of  France's  people  are  farmers?  In  the  United 
States  about  49  per  cent  are  engaged  in  agriculture.  Do  you  call  the  United 
States  an  industrial  country?  An  agricultural  country?  Both  an  industrial 
and  an  agricultural  country? 


92 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


What  does  Fig.  34  add  to  your  thought  about  the  matter  ? 

What  does  this  map  tell  you  that  is  different  from  what  the  bar  graph  of 
Fig.  33  tells?  What  countries  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  their  soil  con- 
tain the  great  iron  reserves  of^the  world  ?  Are  you  surprised  to  find  that  the 
United  States  has  one  ___  of  the  iron  supply  of  the  world  ?  That 

France  has  about  one   ,  while  Germany  has  only  about 

per  cent?  How  can  you  make  this  statement  agree  with  the  fact  (from 
Fig.  33)  that  Germany  formerly  produced  nearly  20  per  cent  of  the  iron  of 
the  world  ? 


^  ^-^'s^  \  i  '-'^l^ 


-sr  ,  SIBERIA 

-  -..,-i<-^,-f^.VVoRUS5IA     ^  J  "^/^ 


A  >Vorld  Man  of 
Iron  Ore  Resources 
—  Percentages  Are 
Based  on  an  Esti- 
mated "Actual  Re- 
serve" of  32,555.- 
OO  Tons,  with 
f'otential  Reserve 
iMuch  Larger  —  the 
Circles  Represent 
Only  Reserves  in 
lixcess  of  lOo.UOO,- 
000  Tons 


INDIAN  OCE^N 


Fig.  34 1 


The  fact  is  that  the  bar  graph  of  Fig.  33  tells  the  true  story  for  1913, 
while  the  map  gives  the  estimated  reserves  of  iron  for  1921.  And  in  the 
meantime,  between  1913  and  1921,  the  great  World  War  had  been  fought, 
and  Germany  defeated.  With  what  result  ?  She  had  been  forced  to  give  up 
to  France  Alsace-Lorraine  with  its  tremendous  resources  of  iron.  And  so 
today,  because  boundry  lines  have  changed  recently,  France  holds  one  sixth 
of  the  world's  iron  supply! 


COAL  THE  KEY  THAT  UNLOCKS  IRON. 

Did  you  ever  stop  to  think  that  we  could  not  have  had  this  great  industrial 
revolution  without  coal.  Machines  cannot  be  run  without  some  kind  of 
motive  power.  The  steam  engine  was  invented  and  gave  us  our  chief 
power.  But  to  get  steam  in  an  engine  required  fuel  to  heat  the  water  in  the 
boilers.  For  a  long  time  wood  was  burned  but  this  was  not  economical 
and  the  supply  began  to  give  out  rapidly.    And  then — along  about  1800 


'  Iiidusl  rial   I  )i,tj;(>:;( .  1!)'22. 


FRANCE  AND  GERMANY 


93 


men  learned  how  to  burn  coal  more  economically.  And  it  probably  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  the  countries  with  coal  supplies  were  sure  to  become 
the  great  industrial  countries. 

Study  the  coal  bar  graphs  of  Fig.  16.    Does  this  statement  seem  to  be 
true? 

But  it  is  not  enough  for  a  country  to  have  large  quantities  of  iron  ore 
in  the  rock  of  her  territory.  In  order  for  it  to  be  of  any  use  to  make  things 
out  of,  the  impurities  must  be  taken  out  by  heating  the  ore  to  a  great  heat. 
This  is  called  "smelting"  the  ore.  To  do  this,  of  course,  demands  a  good 
fuel;  coal  is  the  one  fuel  upon  which  men  have  relied  all  these  many 
years. 

Which  countries  are  the  great  coal  producing  countries?  Are  France 
and  Germany  in  the  list  ?    Is  the  United  States  ? 

ARE  IRON-PRODUCING  COUNTRIES  COAL-PRODUCERS? 

It  is  very  important  to  see  if  the  great  iron  producing  countries  are 
also  the  great  coal  producing  countries. 

Are  the  first  four  in  each  of  the  bar  graphs  (Figs.  33  and  16)  the  same? 
What  does  this  tell  you  about  the  amount  of  coal  that  Germany,  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  would  have  to  import  in  order  to  produce 
the  large  amount  of  iron  that  they  do? 

More  important  still,  what  about  France  in  the  two  bar  graphs  ?  She  is 
one  of  the  great  iron  producers — is  she  well  supplied  with  coal?  No.  She 
produces  less  than  4  per  cent  of  the  world's  supply  against  5  times  as  much 
by  the  United  States.  Yet  she  produces  12  per  cent  of  the  iron  of  the  world. 
What  must  France  have  done  to  accomplish  this? 

Turn  back  to  Fig.  17  which  shows  where  the  ocean-borne  coal  trade 
of  the  world  goes.  Does  France  import  coal?  How  is  that  shown  on  the 
map  ?    From  what  country  does  she  get  it  by  sea  ? 

Prior  to  the  war  she  got  coal  in  large  quantities  from  Germany.  See  if 
you  can  find  Westphalia  on  the  economic  map  of  Europe  in  your  geography. 
This  is  the  greatest  coal  producing  area  of  Germany.  There  is  another 
one  in  western  Europe  which  is  of  importance:  the  Saar  River  basin. 
Find  that  on  the  map,  just  at  the  northern  edge  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  It  is  a 
very  small  region — only  730  square  miles. 

Do  you  know  that  for  its  size  there  is  no  more  disputed  region  in  the 
world  right  now  than  this  same  little  Saar  River  Basin.  Why?  Because 
in  1918,  it  was  taken  away  from  Germany  by  the  makers  of  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles  and  given  to  France.  Why  ?  To  offset  the  losses  of  coal  that 
the  French  stood  when  the  Germans  destroyed  some  of  their  most  valuable 
coal  mines,  chiefly  those  at  Lens  and  Valenciennes  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war.  You  see  when  Germany  rushed  westward  on  that  first  mad  march 
in  1914  she  headed  straight  for  the  two  most  valuable  mineral  sections  of 


94 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


France  and  the  border  country :  the  iron  basin  of  Briey  and  the  coal  fields 
of  Flanders  in  northern  France.  They  knew  only  too  well  that  the  World 
War  was  to  be  principally  a  war  of  iron  and  coal.    Can  you  tell  why? 

Find  Lens  and  Valenciennes  on  an  economic  map  of  Europe  in  your 
geography.  Trace  the  industrial  section  of  France.  Do  you  notice  how 
it  is  scattered  along  the  northern  and  western  borders — near  where  the  coal 
and  iron  deposits  are? 

As  you  go  along  in  your  study  of  the  social  sciences,  you  will  see  more 
and  more  clearly  how  sought-after  have  been  those  spots  on  the  globe  where 
coal  and  iron  and  oil  have  been  deposited.  Compare  the  population  map 
of  the  world,  Fig.  3  with  the  coal  bar  graph.  What  relation  can  you  see 
between  the  distribution  of  people  over  the  face  of  the  earth  and  the  places 
where  coal  is  deposited  in  the  earth?  Now  compare  the  iron  map  of  the 
world  (Fig.  34)  with  the  population  map  Fig.  3.  Is  there  any  connection 
between  the  numbers  of  people  who  live  at  different  places  and  the  way  in 
which  iron  happens  to  be  deposited  in  the  earth? 

We  must  not  forget  that  geologists  and  engineers  who  are  travelling 
about  the  world  in  these  modern  times  of  ours  looking  over  unexplored 
regions  very  carefully,  trying  to  find  new  deposits  of  iron,  tell  us  that  there 
are  probably  untold  quantities  of  iron  in  Central  Asia  and  Africa.  Are 
there  many  people  living  in  Central  Asia?    In  Africa? 

How  does  this  affect  your  answer  to  the  question  about  the  relation  be- 
tween where  people  live  and  where  coal  and  iron  are  found  ? 


COULD  EITHER  FRANCE  OR  GERMANY  LIVE  BY  HERSELF? 

Can  industrial  nations  like  France  and  Germany  exist  alone?  For  a 
number  of  lessons  now  we  have  been  answering  the  question  for  United 
States,  England,  Russia  and  China.  Could  these  countries  exist  by  them- 
selves if  all  other  countries  of  the  world  should  refuse  to  trade  with  them  ? 

Would  you  say  that  the  countries  we  have  been  learning  about  were 
large  or  small  ones?  The  United  States?  The  empire  of  Great  Britain? 
Russia?  China?  Turn  back  to  Fig.  3  which  shows  the  way  in  which 
people  are  living  in  different  places  on  the  earth.  Locate  France  and 
Germany  on  the  map.  Does  it  seem  to  you  that  as  many  people  are  living 
in  that  area  as  in  the  other  countries  about  which  we  have  been  studying? 
Where  are  the  blackest  spots  on  the  map  of  Europe  ?  Do  you  find  Holland 
and  Belgium?  That  region  together  with  the  south  of  England  seems  to 
be  perfectly  black.  Apparently  more  people  are  living  there  per  square 
mile  tlian  in  any  other  place  in  Europe.  Wliat  does  the  map  show  you 
about  France  and  (Germany?  About  how  many  people  are  living  in 
Germany  according  to  the  bar  graph  of  this  figure?  Docs  France  appear 
in  the  list  of  leading  countries  in  population? 


FRANCE  AND  GERMANY 


95 


Because  of  the  fact  that  it  is  not  one  of  the  eight  most  populated 
countries  France  is  not  included.  Whereas  in  1910  China  had  18%  of 
the  population  of  the  world,  and  India  hkewise  had  18%,  and  Russia  had 
8%,  Httle  France  had  only  2%,  less  than  40  millions.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  German  Empire  included  about  4%  of  the  entire  population  of  the  world, 
totaling  approximately  60  million  people.  The  area  of  the  German  Empire, 
however,  is  not  much  greater  than  that  of  France. 

There  is  one  very  great  difference,  however,  between  France  and  Ger- 
many that  you  must  remember  when  you  come  to  the  study  of  international 
relations  toward  the  close  of  this  year,  and  that  is  that  France  is  now  and 
has  been  for  a  long  time  a  closely  unified  country.  Germany,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  from  its  very  beginning  been  a  federation  of  states.  Throughout 
the  hundreds  of  years— the  12th,  13th,  14th  and  l5th  centuries,  yes,  even 
through  the  19th  century,  one  ruling  house  after  another  has  tried  to  hold 
together  the  hundreds  of  little  states,  provinces,  duchies,  kingdoms,  and 
even  free  cities. 

As  you  study  the  history  of  Europe  of  the  past  few  hundred  years,  this 
contrast  between  France  and  Germany  will  be  brought  out  in  a  very  im- 
portant way.  Notice  on  the  map  of  Europe  what  a  convenient  settling 
place  France  was  for  the  hordes  of  barbarians  who  came  down  from  the 
north  and  over  from  the  east.  The  British  Islands  were  cut  off,  of  course, 
for  it  was  hard  to  get  across  the  sea.  The  huge  peninsula,  which  is  now 
Spain  and  Portugal,  is  away  around  the  corner,  so  to  speak,  and  from  the 
opposite  side  on  the  Mediterranean  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  extends. 
Curiously  enough,  although  France  has  been  for  a  long  time  a  very  uni- 
fied people— less  than  1%  of  the  population  of  France  was  foreign  born— 
the  French  people  today  are  made  up  from  original  stock  that  came  from 
more  different  people  than  any  other  country  in  Europe.  What  a  strategic 
position  she  has  been  in  all  these  centuries!  "She  commanded  western 
Europe;  she  held  the  Channel  against  England;  she  had  a  great  Atlantic 
seaboard;  she  spread  out  on  the  Mediterranean;  she  touched  southeastern 
Europe  by  the  passages  of  the  Alps ;  she  held  the  only  routes  east  and  west 
of  the  Pyrennes  and  Spain.  Geographically  France  is  the  most  favored 
country  in  Europe." 

Now  into  this  favored  location  came  all  sorts  and  kinds  of  Teutonic 
and  Latin  peoples,  and  throughout  the  centuries  of  development  out  of 
these  many  kinds  of  people  have  been  made  one  unified  and  centralized 
nation.  No  matter  what  part  of  France  a  Frenchman  comes  from,  no 
matter  what  work  he  does,  how  well  educated  he  is,  what  church  affiha- 
tions  he  has,  what  political  party  he  belongs  to,  he  is  almost  sure  to  be  ''for 
France".    Loyalties  are  not  easily  divided  there. 


96 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


IS  FRANCE  SELF  SUFFICIENT? 

Turn  back  to  the  table  which  gave  the  percentages  of  the  people  in  dif- 
ferent countries  engaged  in  agriculture.  Do  you  recall  that  in  Jugo- 
slavia 88%  of  all  the  people  v^^ere  farmers,  and  that  77%  of  the  Russians 
tilled  the  soil?  On  the  other  hand,  only  6%  of  the  people  of  England  were 
farmers,  showing  us  to  what  extent  that  island  country  had  become  an 
industrial  nation.  Now,  France  stands  between  the  two  extremes  and 
makes  us  think  very  much  of  the  United  States.  40%  of  the  French  people 
are  tillers  of  the  soil. 

In  agriculture  is  France  a  self-sufficient  nation?  See  the  wheat  chart, 
Fig.  5.  In  spite  of  her  apparent  small  acreage  of  wheat  does  she  produce 
enough  to  feed  herself?  Every  inch  of  ground  is  made  to  give  its  utmost 
contribution  to  the  food  of  France.  Americans  can  hardly  appreciate  the 
intense  care  that  a  Frenchman  takes  of  his  little  plot  of  ground.  We  are 
very  wasteful  of  our  land  in  this  country.  The  French  make  us  think  of 
the  Chinese  in  this  respect.  Why  ?  Furthermore  the  French  peasants  drift 
away  from  the  farms  to  the  cities  less  than  do  those  of  other  countries. 
France  "still  breeds  peasants  enough  to  stock  her  soil  and  of  the  same  old 
rooted  breed." 

Remember,  of  course,  that  there  are  few  landlords  in  France.  Dur- 
ing the  French  Revolution  in  1793,  when  the  Republic  took  the  place  of 
the  Kingdom,  and  during  the  years  that  followed,  the  great  estates  of  France 
were  divided  up  and  given  to  the  farmers.  Since  that  time  great  estates  have 
been  relatively  unknown  there.  Of  course  scattered  among  the  peasants 
who  are  tilling  their  own  fields  are  remnants  of  the  old  ''feudal  nobility." 
Little  groups  of  "squires,"  are  still  to  be  found  scattered  throughout  France. 
But  they  are  relatively  few. 

Study  the  other  food  maps  of  Figs.  4  to  10.  Does  France  raise  corn? 
Does  she  use  much  corn?  How  about  cattle?  Now  potatoes?  Sugar? 
Be  ready  now  to  sum  up  your  answer  to  the  question :  Could  France  pro- 
vide for  herself  if  other  countries  refused  to  trade  with  her?  For  what 
food  stuffs  would  she  be  in  want  ?    For  what  other  things  ? 

HOW  SELF-SUFFICIENT  IS  GERMANY? 

Between  1914  and  1918  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  and  Turkey 
were  completely  cut  off  from  the  world.  For  four  years  ocean  going  ships 
could  not  reach  these  countries.  Armies  of  millions  of  men  hemmed  them 
in  on  the  west,  on  the  east,  and  on  the  south.  When  the  World  War  be- 
gan on  the  Roumanian  and  Servian  borders  they  were  also  opposed  in  those 
quarters. 

By  1917  stories  began  to  appear  regularly  in  the  newspapers  and  mag- 
azines of  the  United  States,  England  and  France  that  the  Germans  were 


FRANCE  AND  GERMANY 


97 


finding  it  very  hard  to  get  enough  food  to  keep  their  armies  and  their  civ- 
ilian people  going.  They  needed  grain  for  bread  stuffs;  they  needed  cattle 
for  meat. 

Was  Germany  raising  enough  wheat  or  corn  prior  to  the  World  War 
to  supply  her  own  needs?  What  does  Fig.  4,  the  wheat  chart,  show  you 
about  that?  Does  Germany  appear  at  all  in  that  list  of  the  eighteen 
leading  countries?  No,  Germany  raises  so  little  wheat  that  she  does  not 
appear  in  the  list.  Germany  was  not  primarily  a  user  of  wheat,  nor  of 
corn  either.  Compare  the  wheat  map.  Fig.  4,  with  the  corn  map.  Fig.  6. 
Apparently  Germany  used  almost  no  corn  at  all.  That  is  also  true  of 
France  and  England,  and  all  of  the  north,  central  and  northern  European 
countries.  Evidently  the  United  States,  together  with  the  southeastern 
European  countries,  are  the  great  corn  raising  and  using  countries  of  the 
world.   Germany  does  use  some  wheat,  but  not  nearly  as  much  as  France. 

Study  the  bar  graphs  under  Fig.  4,  the  world  wheat  map.  The  second 
graph  shows,  however,  that  for  the  amount  of  wheat  which  Germany 
raised  she  farmed  very  carefully  indeed.  Do  you  recall  the  point  that  we 
made  some  lessons  ago,  namely,  that  the  small  countries  of  the  world,  had 
little  acreage  and  yet  farmed  very  carefully?  We  pointed  out  that  the 
countries  that  appear  in  the  second  table  under  the  wheat  map  do  not  in 
any  case  appear  in  the  first  table.  It  is  very  interesting  that  France,  al- 
though smaller  than  Germany,  raises  much  more  wheat  but  does  not  begin 
to  raise  as  much  per  acre,  this  too  in  spite  of  the  care  with  which  the  French 
till  their  soil.    How  can  this  be? 

What  is  the  mystic  food  word  in  Germany  then,  if  neither  wheat  nor 
corn  is?  Rye!  Rye  maps  of  the  world  leave  little  room  for  doubt  that  the 
leading  country  in  the  production  of  rye,  considering  the  number  of  acres 
to  the  population  prior  to  the  World  War  at  least,  was  the  German  Empire. 
Central  and  northeastern  Russia  likewise  raises  a  great  deal  of  rye,  in  fact, 
five  times  as  much  as  the  German  Empire.  But,  per  capita,  Germany  raised 
seven  bushels  against  European  Russia's  6^. 

It  is  worth  remembering  that  those  parts  of  Europe  which  do  not  raise 
any  corn,  and  only  a  little  wheat,  do  go  in  heavily  for  rye  and  other  food 
stuffs.  Do  you  remember  that  during  the  World  War,  we  heard  a  great 
deal  about  ''potato"  bread  being  used  in  the  German  and  Austrian  Em- 
pires? Yes,  since  they  could  not  get  enough  bread  stuffs  from  the  little 
wheat  that  they  raised,  and  their  rye,  they  turned  to  using  potatoes  to 
make  bread  from.  What  a  huge  supply  they  had  is  shown  by  the  potato 
map.  Fig.  7.  Notice  that  the  German  Empire  raised  more  potatoes  than 
any  other  country,  including  even  the  great  Russian  Empire.  They  farmed 
so  well  that  they  raised  more  bushels  per  acre  than  any  other  country  ex- 
cept the  United  Kingdom.  Furthermore,  they  raised  far  more  bushels  per 
inhabitant  and  had  a  much  larger  percentage  of  their  cropped  land  in 


98 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


potatoes  than  any  other  country  of  the  world.  How  does  the  United  States 
compare  with  Germany  in  this  respect?  Study  the  bar  graphs  very  care- 
fully. The  German  Empire  and  Russia  together  in  1913  raised  more  than 
one-half  of  the  world's  potato  crop.  Do  you  wonder  that  they  made 
"potato-bread"  in  1916-18? 

There  is  a  third  food  that  Germany  went  in  for  heavily,  that  is  sugar. 
Germany  wns  the  leading  beet  sugar  country  of  the  world  in  1913.  She 
raised  nearly  2^  million  tons  of  sugar.  Study  the  sugar  map,  Fig.  8. 
Do  you  recall  what  we  said  about  the  two  kinds  of  sugar  that  were  raised 
in  the  world,  beet  sugar  and  cane  sugar,  and  that  they  seemed  to  be  very 
clearly  marked  off  in  zones  throughout  the  world?  The  United  States, 
India,  Cuba  and  Java,  raise  cane  sugar.  It  happens  that  the  United  States 
also  raises  some  beet  sugar.  Germany  and  Russia  are  the  really  great  beet 
sugar  countries  of  the  world.  It  is  rather  interesting  to  find  that  north- 
eastern France  raises  some  of  its  own  sugar. 

What  shall  we  say  about  the  raising  of  cattle  in  these  two  countries? 
Study  the  cattle  map  of  the  world.  Fig.  9.  Do  you  think  Germany  must 
have  had  a  hard  time  to  get  meat  during  those  terrible  years  of  the  War? 
Was  she  one  of  the  leading  countries  in  the  raising  of  cattle  ?  Where  does 
she  stand  in  the  number  of  millions  raised  in  1913?  What  countries  raised 
more?  Where  does  France  appear  in  this  list?  In  proportion  to  the  pop- 
ulation, how  does  France  compare  with  Germany  in  the  raising  of  cattle? 
What  does  the  cattle  map  teach  you  are  the  most  important  cattle  produc- 
ing regions  of  France?  Is  there  any  area  in  Germany  like  that  portion  of 
France?  Look  at  the  third  of  bar  graphs  under  the  cattle  map  of  the 
world.  For  her  area,  do  you  think  Germany  raised  cattle  well?  How  did 
she  compare  with  England? 

When  you  were  studying  about  England  you  learned  of  her  great  su- 
premacy in  sheep  raising.  What  manufacturing  industry  caused  her  to  be 
especially  interested  in  raising  sheep?  Do  you  recall  how  well  she  compared 
with  Russia  and  Turkey  and  the  other  sheep  raising  countries?  Study  the 
sheep  map  of  Fig.  12.  Which  country,  France  or  Germany,  raised  the  most 
sheep  in  1918? 

Should  it  astonish  us,  therefore,  that  Germany  was  able  to  hold  out 
as  well  as  she  did  during  the  World  War?  Although  shut  off  from  other 
countries,  except  her  allies,  she  was  able  to  stand  the  pressure  of  four  years 
of  complete  blockade.  Of  course,  we  must  remember  that  she  helped  her- 
self as  far  as  wheat  and  corn  were  concerned  by  her  successful  drive  into 
Roumania,  Servia  and  Greece.  One  of  the  greatest  wheat  regions  of 
Europe  is  found  in  Roumania. 

What  is  your  answer  now  to  the  (jucstions :  Could  France  provide  for 
her  own  needs  if  all  the  other  nations  refused  to  trade  with  her?  Could 
Germany?    For  how  long,  do  you  think? 


FRANCE  AND  GERMANY  99 


WE  SHALL  STUDY  LATER  THE  IMPERIAL  HISTORY  OF  FRANCE  AND  GERMANY. 

When  we  studied  about  Great  Britain  we  paid  a  good  deal  attention  to 
the  fact  that  she  was  originally  a  small  island  and  had  expanded  to  be- 
come a  great  world  empire.  We  did  this  chiefly  because  that  is  the  most 
important  thing  about  England.  Now,  during  the  1800's  other  western 
European  countries  have  become  very  imperialistic.  Practically  all,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  Russia,  Portugal,  Holland,  Belgium  have  secured  land  in 
regions  far  away  from  the  home  country.  That  is  what  we  mean  when  we 
say  countries  are  "imperialistic."  They  control  other  peoples  besides  their 
own.  Are  you  astonished  to  find  that  your  own  country  has  become  im- 
perialistic? The  United  States  controls  lands  and  people  thousands  of 
miles  away  from  the  main  land— the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii, 
Guam  and  San  Domingo.    (Can  you  find  these  places  on  the  wall  map?) 

Now,  there  is  no  more  important  matter  to  learn  about  than  the  way 
Europe  has  dominated  Asia,  and  Africa  since  1800.  France  played  a  large 
part  in  this,  Germany  a  minor  one.  We  cannot  take  the  time  now  to  do 
so  however.  In  the  pamphlet  on  international  relations  we  will  study  it 
very  thoroughly. 


\ 


VL    THE  SMALLER  NATIONS— MANY  HANDICAPPED  BY 
CLIMATE,  SOIL,  MOUNTAINS,  OR  LACK  OF  RAINFALL 

Table  IX. 


Area 
Sq. 

Miles  Population 


Climate 


Soil 


Arable 
Ijand 


Essential 
Rainfall  Resources 


Andean 
Mountain 
States 
Bolivia 
Chile 
Colombia 
Ecuador 

Balkan 

Countries 
Bulgaria 
Greece 
Roumania 
Serbia 
(Jugo- 
slavia) 

Central 

America 
Costa  Rica 
Guatemala 
Honduras 
Nicaragua 
Panama 

North 
Medeter- 
ranean 
Countries 

Italy 

Portugal 

Spain 

Turkey 

Switzerland 

Scandivania 
Denmark 
Norway 
Sweden 

The  Lonv 

Countries 
Belgium 
Holland 


514,000 
290,000 
441,000 
116.000 


42,000 
56,000 
122,300 


117,000 


23,000 
48,300 
44,300 
49,200 
32,400 


110,600 
35,500 
194,800 
100,000 
16,000 


17,000 
125,000 
173,000 


11,800 
13,200 


2,890,000 
3,946,000 
5,420,000 
2,000,000 


4,500,000 
5,500,000 
17,393,000 


14,789,0001 


459,000 
2,004,000 
606,000 
746,000 
337,000 


36,120,000 
5,958,000 

20,720,000 
5,000,000 
3,937,000 


3,171,000 
2,632,000 
5,814,000 


7,762,000 
6,769,000 


To  the  Teaclier:  Assign  for  special  study  one  of  these 
countries  in  Table  I  to  each  pupil  in  the  class.  Have 
the  pupil  summarize  the  country  assigned  to  him  by 
answering  the  questions  below. 


THE  SMALLER  NATIONS 


101 


Answer  these  questions  about  these  groups  of  small  nations.  Use 
geographies  and  reference  books  and  maps  showing  world  resources. 
Geographies  such  as  the  McMurray  and  Parkins,  Atwood,  Brigham  and 
McFarland,  etc.  contain  maps  of  this  character.  Also  find  out  if  your 
school  library  has  these  books. 

(1)  Finch,  V.  C.  and  Baker,  O.  E.,  Geography  of  the  World's  Agricul- 
ture.   Write  to  the  Supt.  of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C.    Price  $1.00. 

(2)  World  Atlas  of  Commercial  Geology,  Part  I.  Write  to  the  Di- 
rector of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C.  Price 
$2.00. 

(3)  Statesman's  Yearbook,  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 
Price  $7.50. 


1.  To  what  extent  do  these  small  nations  produce  the  products  in 
Table  II?  In  the  proper  columns  write  your  answer  thus:  much,  little, 
not  at  all. 

Table  X 


Wheat 

Corn 

Cattle 

Wool 

Cotton 

Coal 

Iron 

Timber 

Potatoes 

Andean  Mountain 
Countries 

Balkan 
Countries 

Central 
America 

North  Med- 
iterranean 
Countries 

Switzerland 

Scandivania 
The  Low 
Countries 

1  ■ 
1 

i 

1  1  

 i  i-- 

1  1 — 1-— 

1 '  1 

1  1  



2.  In  general  what  is  the  climate  of  the  country  assigned  to  you  for 
special  study? 

Check  the  correct  statement  below: 

a.  The  climate  is  favorable  to  self-sufficiency. 

b.  The  climate  is  unfavorable  to  self-sufficiency. 

3.  Soil: 

a.  Most  of  the  land  is  productive. 

b.  Little  of  the  land  is  productive. 

4.  Rainfall. 

a.  The  country  has  sufficient  rainfall. 

b.  The  country  has  insufficient  rainfall. 


102 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRY 


5.  The  country  (assigned  to  you)  produces  a  sufficient  supply  of: 
wheat,  corn,  cattle,  coal,  lumber.  Underline  for  the  country  you  are  as- 
signed to  study  the  products  of  which  it  does  produce  a  sufficient  supply. 

6.  Notice  in  Table  I  that  most  of  these  nations  have  a  small  population. 
Be  ready  to  explain  why. 

7.  What  are  the  chief  points  of  strength  and  weakness  in  these  small 
nations  ? 

8.  Find  pictures,  maps,  and  charts  which  will  help  prove  that  these 
nations  are  self-sufficient. 

9.  Find  out  distinctive  resources  or  products  of  these  small  nations 
upon  which  the  rest  of  the  world  depends.  Table  I  lists  the  chief  small 
countries  of  the  world.  They  are  handicapped  by  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing geographical  factors :  climate,  soil,  limited  natural  resources,  moun- 
tains or  lack  of  rainfall.  We  have  filled  out  the  first  two  columns  of  this 
table.  See  if  you  can  complete  Table  I.  by  filling  in  the  blank  spaces  under 
the  small  countries  mentioned.  Use  the  identification  map  Fig.  2  to  locate 
the  smaller  nations.  Close  your  book  and  on  a  mimeographed  map  of  the 
world  write  in  the  locations  of :  , 

(a).    Andean  Mountain  States.  . 

(c)  .    Central  American  States,  j       '  ^ 

(d)  .    North  Mediterranean  Countries.  ^ 

(e)  .  Switzerland. 

(f)  .    Scandinavian  Peninsula  Countries. 

(g)  .    The  Low  Countries. 

10.  Study  the  relief  maps  of  America  and  Europe.  Use  any  geography 
you  have.  Which  of  these  statements  is  the  best  general  conclusion  to  be 
drawn  from  a  study  of  the  geographical  features  of  these  small  countries  ? 

1.  The  climate  is  a  severe  handicap. 

2.  The  soil  is  fertile. 

3.  The  scenery  is  beautiful. 

4.  The  resources  of  these  states  are  limited.  ,X 

5.  These  states  support  a  sparse  but  hardy  people. 

6.  Mountains  hinder  the  self-sufficiency  of  these  countries. 

REVIEW 

COUNTRIES  WITH  FAVORABLE  GEOGRAPHIC  CONDITIONS 
VERSUS  SMALL  NATIONS  HANDICAPPED  BY  CLIMATE,  FEW 
RESOURCES,   SOIL,   MOUNTAINS  AND   LACK  OF  RAINFALL. 

Below  are  several  short  paragraphs  descriptive  of  the  larger  nations 
that  you  have  studied.  Read  these  paragraphs  and  then  write  the  name 
of  the  countries  to  which  each  description  applies  at  the  top  of  that 
paragraph. 


THE  SMALLER  NATIONS  ^  ^  » 

1.  This  country  is  largely  self-sufficient,  supports  a  large  pop- 
ulation and  boasts  of  a  very  old  civilization.  It  is  interesting  to 
study  an  economic  map  and  discover  that  this  nation  is  rich  in  coal  and 
iron  (largely  undeveloped).  Her  land,  even  though  it  supports  a  tre- 
mendous population,  is  still  highly  productive  because  these  people 
practice  intensive  agriculture,  conserve  their  water  supply,  enjoy  a 
heavy  rainfall  and  use  fertilizer  wisely.  If  you  study  Fig.  3  a  popu- 
lation map  where  dots  illustrate  density  of  population  (one  dot  to 

several  hundred  thousand  of  people)  you  will  find  that  the  

half  (which  half?)  of  this  great  country  looks  as  though  a  bottle  of 
ink  had  been  spilled  upon  the  map.  It  is  said  of  this  country  that 
its  area  and  population,  its  tremendous  resources  and  rich  soil  make 
it  a  country  upon  which  the  world  will  more  and  more  depend. 


2.  This  country's  striking  characteristic  is  its  rapid  rise  to  a 
position  of  a  world  power  because  of  its  favorable  geographical 
position.  Its  location  made  possible  the  development  of  manu- 
facturing and  trade  throughout  the  world.  The  essential  re- 
sources for  an  industrial  nation  are  coal,  iron,  raw  products  and 
facilities  for  carrying  its  products  to  markets.  Study  Figs.  16  and  33 
(world  resources  of  coal  and  iron)  and  the  rise  to  world  leadership 
of  this  nation  is  more  easily  explained.  Isolated  from  constant  war- 
fare of  rival  nations  and  yet  so  situated  as  to  profit  by  the  commerce 
of  its  neighbors,  is  it  any  wonder  that  this  nation  developed  into  a 
great  maritime  power  ?  It  may  be  dependent  upon  other  parts  of  the 
world  but  it  so  happens  that  it  controls  enough  of  the  world  and 
maintains  the  ships  by  which  to  assure  for  itself  its  needed  food. 


3.  This  country  is  a  curious  mixture  of  self-sufficiency  and  in- 
terdependence. Its  chief  drawbacks  are  an  unfavorable  climate, 
and  poor  transportation, — serious  handicaps  to  any  large  nation. 
It  is  principally  an  agricultural  nation.  A  study  of  Figures  6 
and  9  (corn  and  cattle)  shows  these  to  be  important  crops  here. 
Notice  though  that  a  large  part  of  this  country  is  unproductive. 
Why? 

But  resources  (land,  forest  and  minerals)  though  favorable 
are  not  the  only  factors  in  making  a  nation.  This  empire  had  as 
its  chief  weakness  a  type  of  government  that  hindered  progress.  An 
old  feudal  system  with  a  few  nobles  owning  most  of  the  land  made 


\ 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRY 


agricultural  progress  next  to  impossible.    Coal,  iron  and  lumber 

are  also  found  in   But  even  with  all  these  factors  that 

should  have  made  this  country  a  great  industrial  nation,  never- 
theless she  did  not  rise  to  this  position.  Transportation  is  hin- 
dered by  many  obstacles,  chief  of  w^hich  are  climate  and  lack  of 
industrial  progress. 


4.  Here  is  a  country  which  for  centuries  has  been  able  to 
provide  food  enough  to  support  a  hardy,  thrifty  people.  It  too  has 
its  share  of  essential  resources  as  a  study  of  Figs.  4,  9,  16  and  33 
show  (wheat,  cattle,  coal,  and  iron).  It  is  said  that  these  geo- 
graphical factors  are  favorable  to  the  self-sufficiency  of  the  people. 
Extensive  lowlands  and  a  variable  climate  (temperature  and  rain- 
fall) generally  lead  to  a  country  of  land-owners.  This  not 
only  assures  wise  care  of  the  land  but  also  secures  a  happy  and  con- 
tented people.  But  favorable  location  is  the  chief  thing  that  de- 
termines possible  industrial  development.  Here  is  a  country  in 
the  midst  of  one  of  the  two  or  three  most  densely  populated  re- 
gions in  the  world.  Thus  it  is  well  situated  for  industrial  progress. 
Possible  markets  are  within  short  distances,  for  some  six  or  seven 
countries  border  this  country.  It  also  faces  two  important  water 
highways  so  that  its  products  are  easily  distributed  throughout  th'* 
world.  -      •  ^ 

5.  This  country  is  one  of  the  few  that  could  continue  to 
exist  if  the  rest  of  the  world  stopped  exporting  products  to  it. 
Here  is  a  country  with  varied  climate,  rainfall  and  resources. 
Study  world  maps  which  show  that  wheat,  cattle,  wool,  cotton, 
coal  and  iron  are  produced  and  what  do  you  note  about  this 
country?  You  find  that  these  products  are  distributed  abundantly 
and  somewhat  evenly  over  this  country. 

But  this  country  is  not  primarily  agricultural  nor  is  it  chiefly 
industrial.  Remember  that  these  two  things  depend  upon  each 
other.  Fortunately  it  possesses  excellent  transportation — its  rail- 
roads are  of  the  world's  best,  its  harbors,  lakes,  and  rivers,  make 
possible  the  exchange  and  distribution  of  its  goods.  This  varied 
civilization  makes  possible  a  happy,  contented,  and  prosperous 
people,  living  in  a  way  that  hardly  any  other  country  in  the  world 
enjoys. 


6.  Here  are  a  number  of  statements  descriptive  of  another 
important  country.  After  reading  them  would  you  say  this  was  an 
agricultural  nation? 


THE  SMALLER  NATIONS 


105' 


1.  The  soil  is  not  very  fertile;  2.  much  of  the  land  is 
mountainous  and  a  considerable  part  of  it  is  very  sandy;  3.  the 
"lay  of  the  land"  sloping  as  it  does  to  the  northward  deprives  it 
of  the  hot  summer  weather  essential  to  so  many  crops;  4.  there 
is  little  rainfall,  in  fact,  hardly  enough  for  raising  these  crops. 

But  these  people  have  achieved  a  success  worthy  of  mention. 
They  have  handled  their  land  wisely  and  experimented  until  they 
found  crops  most  suitable  for  it.  They  have  greatly  increased  the 
yield  of  these  crops  per  acre  by  intensive  farming. 

Now  such  a  country  as  this,  with  a  dense  population  (over  300 
per  square  mile),  and  raising  insufficient  food  to  feed  itself,  must 
find  some  way  to  pay  for  the  food  that  it  has  to  import.  Study 
Figs.  16  and  33  (coal  and  iron.)  Does  this  country  possess  these 
essentials  for  manufacturing?  Yes,  the  raw  materials  are  close  at 
hand.  Manufacturing  started  fifty  years  ago  and  her  people  be- 
came great  salesmen  of  their  products;  her  merchant  marine  car- 
ried goods  the  world  over  and  her  industrial  strength  rapidly  in- 
creased. Her  people  have  a  favorable  location  for  continued  in- 
dustrial development — nearness  to  raw  materials,  a  cheap  labor  sup- 
ply and  easy  means  of  marketing  their  products. 


Write  in  line  of  two  why  each  of  these  nations  became  great. 


Table  XL 


China 


France 


Germany 


Area 
(Square  miles) 


4,277,100  327,910,000 


212,700  41,476,000 


171,900  59,000,000 


Population 


106  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRY 


British  Empire  13,700,000  475,000,000 


Russia  8,417,118  182,000,000 


United  States    3,743,529    1 17,859,000  <|^S^\M4^li:^^ 


Make  a  list  of  the  nations  of  the  world  whose  progress  can  be  ex- 
plained by  these  factors:  ^3  ^  , 

■-^  \ 

1.  Essential         2.  Favorable  3.  Favorable        4.  Features 

natural               physical  locations  promoting 

resources.            conditions  for  marketing        a  happy 

climate,  soil,  their  products.  contented 

etc.  people. 

U  / 


THE  SMALLER  NATIONS 


107 


After  each  of  these  nations  write  three  things  which  they  have  to  im- 
port from  other  countries.  (See  school  geographies  and  The  Statesman's 
Yearbook.) 


United  States 

England 

France 

Germany 

Russia 

China 


:ri^V^^^^^^-%-   


Now  write  after  each  of  these  countries  three  ways  in  which  they  are 
largely  self-sufficient. 

United  States   ^^^-^.i^-.d..^^ 


England   ^      

Frswice     

Germany       

Russia       

China     j-p  .  

  ^0 

What  is  the  chief  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  this  study  of  the  resources 
of  the  world.  Is  it  ( 1 )  that  the  variety  of  resources  in  each  nation  deter- 
mines its  self-sufficiency;  (2)  that  geographical  conditions  determine  the 
size,  prosperity  and  progress  of  a  nation ;  (3)  that  the  great  nations  are  able 
to  live  by  themselves;  (4)  that  the  types  of  government  that  nations  devise 
explain  their  success;  (5)  that  nations  today  are  independent.  Underline 
the  statement  that  you  think  is  correct.  See  Fig.  19  (of  world  trade).  Ex- 
plain your  answer. 

Now  write  a  half  page  summary  of  this  part  of  the  pamphlet,  pages  100 
to  105  in  which  you  tell  the  main  conclusion  of  this  survey  of  world  re- 
sources. Tell  why  you  think  that  is  the  most  important  conclusion  to  be 
drawn  from  the  study  so  far. 


VII.  ARE  MODERN  INDUSTRIAL  COUNTRIES  REALLY 
SELF-SUFFICIENT?    SHOULD  THEY  BE  SELF-SUFFICIENT? 

We  have  now  studied  the  ability  of  most  of  the  leading  countries  to  live 
by  themselves.  What  is  the  outstanding  conclusion  from  the  work  so  far? 
If  the  greater  powers  of  the  world  should  refuse  to  trade  with  any  one  of 
them,  could  that  country  live  by  itself  ?  Yes,  undoubtedly  it  could.  England 
in  spite  of  her  limited  area,  her  only  moderately  good  land,  and  her  crowded 
population,  could  live  by  herself  because  of  her  imperial  possessions  in  other 
lands.  Russia,  too,  undoubtedly  could  do  so,  once  she  gathered  herself  to- 
gether and  learned  how  to  use  modern  methods  in  developing  her  resources 
and  in  building  an  adequate  transportation  system.  China  has  plodded  along 
by  herself  for  thousands  of  years,  largely  because  she  has  unusually  rich 
soil,  a  large  and  thrifty  labor  supply,  and  a  very  favorable  climate  for  agri- 
culture. She  has  merely  plodded,  however,  much  as  Russia  plodded  before 
1914,  with  simple  farm  tools  and  primitive  ways  of  working.  The  standard 
of  living  in  both  of  these  countries  was  much  lower  than  that  of  western 
industrial  nations  like  the  United  States  and  England.  We  shall  learn 
more  as  we  go  on  about  the  added  material  comforts  that  people  acquire^  as 
they  become  more  and  more  industrial  and  increase  trade  and  intercourse 
with  other  nations. 

We  found,  too,  that  France  and  Germany  were  to  all  appearances  self- 
sufficient.  But  was  this  self-sufficiency  real  or  just  seemingly  so?  Germany 
was  a  very  modern  and  up-to-date  country  with  great  industrial  efficiency; 
she  knew  how  to  make  and  did  make  the  best  possible  use  of  all  her  resources. 
Yet  by  the  end  of  the  War  Germany  was  on  her  knees  begging  for  bread. 
And  since  the  armistice  the  true  state  of  affairs  has  been  revealed ;  there  was  a 
limit  to  her  self-sufficiency.  She  was  able  to  hold  together  for  over  four 
years,  with  absolutely  no  help  from  other  nations,  but  in  conditions  of  war 
she  was  not  able  to  hold  on  longer.  Without  war,  merely  a  trade  blockade, 
it  is  not  possible  to  tell  how  much  longer  her  own  resources  would  have  car- 
ried her.  But  if  she  were  forced  to  make  herself  permanently  independent, 
the  changes  she  would  have  to  make  within  her  industries  would  take  a  very 
long  time.  And  there  is  no  question  that  a  trade  blockade  would  be  a  pretty 
serious  thing  for  cither  France  or  Germany. 

Besides,  is  there  not  a  very  important  difference  between  the  self-suffi- 
ciency of  an  agricultural  country  like  China  or  Russia  and  an  industrial  one 
like  Germany?  An  agricultural  country  may  have  fewer  of  the  so-called 
comforts  of  modern  civilization — pianos,  automobiles,  variety  in  food  and 


SHOULD  COUNTRIES  BE  SELF-SUFFICIENT  f 


109 


clothing,  fine  houses,  beautiful  cities— but  it  rarely  lacks  food.  Therefore, 
the  sudden  shutting  of  it  off  from  the  world  would  not  affect  it  so  seriously. 
You  could  not  imagine,  for  instance,  changing  China's  conditions  a  great 
deal  by  blockading  her ;  Russia  would  be  affected  more,  but  not  nearly  so 
much  as  the  more  modern  nations. 

In  an  industrial  country,  such  as  Germany,  England,  the  United  States, 
the  majority  of  the  people  are  not  engaged  in  raising  foods;  a  very  large  per- 
centage of  them  are  doing  other  things,  which  means  that  half,  or  less  than 
half,  are  raising  enough  food  for  all.  In  England  only  six  per  cent  of  the 
people  are  on  farms.  Do  you  see  the  dangers  for  such  nations  in  case  of  an 
emergency?  Do  you  see  how  they  would  have  to  face  a  different  problem 
from  that  of  China  or  Russia?  Of  course  when  a  national  calamity  comes 
as  it  did  to  Germany  and  Austria,  these  "factory"  and  "city"  workers  either 
starve  or  go  back  to  the  land — as  they  are  doing  around  Vienna.  Now  we 
have  studied  in  this  pamphlet  the  interdependent  life  within  a  modern 
industrial  nation  like  our  own.  In  fact  throughout  the  pamphlets  we  will  be 
studying  many  kinds  of  self-sufficiency — that  of  the  pioneer,  the  frontiersman, 
the  colonist,  who  must  depend  on  himself  for  his  food,  his  clothing  and  the 
roof  over  his  head.  But  even  he  puts  up  with  these  conditions  no  longer  than  he 
has  to.  The  history  of  all  modern  nations  shows  that  gradually,  sometimes  very 
rapidly  as  in  America,  the  pioneer  develops  community  life  in  which  he  comes 
to  depend  on  some  one  else  who  makes  a  different  thing.  One  part  of  the 
country  comes  to  depend  on  another  part.  One  person  in  a  factory  depends 
on  what  someone  else  is  doing  in  that  factory  or  on  others  a  long  distance 
away.  The  independence  of  the  land-worker  in  pioneer  times  has  thus  given 
way  to  the  interdependence  of  the  modern  worker.  In  the  modern  machine 
world  the  people  of  a  country  are  almost  completely  interdependent. 

Now  there  is  another  kind  of  self-sufficiency  we  must  study  a  great  deal — 
the  apparent  self-sufficiency  of  modern  nations.  The  lesson  of  Germany 
and  Austria  makes  us  feel  now  that  probably  the  very  foundation  of  this 
independence  is  unreal  and  that  in  truth  most  modern  nations  can  maintain 
their  self-sufficiency  only  by  forcibly  conquering  lands  and  resources  and 
people  in  other  more  favored  parts  of  the  earth. 

In  our  study  of  international  relations  we  shall  carry  this  point  further.  It 
is  of  tremendous  importance.  How  could  England  exist  in  an  emergency 
without  her  imperial  possessions,  India,  Egypt,  Australia?  Why  did  Japan 
want  Manchuria,  and  why  has  it  arranged  matters  so  as  to  control  one  of 
China's  richest  provinces,  Shangtung,  if  not  for  the  need  for  more  land  and 
more  natural  resources?  Why  did  England,  France,  and  Russia  practically 
dominate  the  entire  continent  of  Asia  during  the  ISOOs?  Why  do  the  Eur- 
opean countries  quarrel  over  Mesopotamia  and  portions  of  Africa?  Is  it 
just  the  desire  for  conquering  people?  Or  is  it  that  their  people  want  the 
valuable  resources  of  these  favored  spots  on  the  earth  ?  Iron  on  the  borderland 


1.10 


RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRY 


of  France  and  Germany  is  a  deep-rooted  cause  of  war.  Iron,  coal,  oil  in 
China,  Africa,  Mexico — great  temptations  for  modern  nations  which  depend 
for  their  existence  on  supplies  that  they  can  get  from  abroad.  Fortunately 
the  United  States  is  unusually  well  provided  with  large  resources  of  nearly 
all  kinds. 

So,  as  we  go  forward  in  our  study  of  these  matters  we  should  question 
whether  modern  nations  really  are  self -sufficient,  and  if  they  are,  why? 
We  should  be  very  insistent  on  finding  out  whether  they  ought  to  continue 
to  be  independent  and  self-sufficient. 

Is  it  the  ideal  that  every  nation  should  be  independent  of  every  other 
nation?  How  often  do  you  think  there  would  be  wars  if  every  nation  was 
independent?  How  many  nations  do  you  think  there  would  soon  be  in  the 
world  ?  Do  you  think  it  would  be  a  good  thing  to  have  just  a  few  nations— 
which  would  happen  if  the  big  nations  swallowed  up  the  little  ones.  Would 
it  ever  be  possible  to  discipline  any  one  nation  say,  by  a  trade  blockade,  if 
they  were  all  independent  ?   What  would  be  the  only  course  in  such  a  case  ? 

Russia  just  now  is  in  a  state  of  chaos,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  out  of  it 
all  will  develop  an  enlightened  civilization  and  a  scientific  knowledge  of 
how  to  make  use  of  her  great  resources.  What  is  the  most  desirable  thing 
for  her  ?  What  is  the  best  end  for  her  to  work  toward  ?  Shall  she  strive  to 
make  herself  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  world  by  laying  the  foundation 
for  conquests  and  developing  her  resources  to  the  fullest?  Shall  she  raise 
and  manufacture  the  kinds  of  things  she  can  in  her  own  country  and  then 
forcibly  take  the  other  things  she  needs  whatever  they  happen  to  be?  Or, 
shall  her  people  do  what  they  are  naturally  and  best  fitted  for  and  exchange 
what  they  can  do  best  with  other  nations  for  what  they  can  do  best?  Which 
do  you  think  should  be  the  hope  of  Russia  ? 

Suppose  that  every  nation  were  entirely  independent  of  every  other  one. 
Do  you  think  there  would  be  any  wars?  Do  you  think  it  would  be  possible  to 
build  up  our  nation,  for  instance,  so  that  we  were  entirely  independent  of  every 
other  nation?  That  would  mean,  of  course,  that  we  wouldn't  trade  at  all 
with  any  other  nation.  We  wouldn't  get  books  or  magazines  from  England, 
or  novels,  or  poetry  from  Russia  or  India  or  any  other  country;  there  would 
be  no  works  of  art,  nor  any  copies  of  the  great  old  masterpieces  of  statuary 
that  stand  in  the  great  art  galleries  in  the  older  countries.  Suppose  that  each 
continent  was  a  world  unto  itself — do  you  think  that  would  be  a  good  thing? 

If  you  don't  think  we  should  live  in  such  a  way  that  we  could  not  ex- 
change anything  with  any  other  country,  do  you  suppose  some  countries 
should  be  independent  and  some  not? 

What  if  every  country  were  dependent  for  some  of  tlie  things  that  go 
to  make  up  its  daily  life  on  other  countries — on  all  the  other  countries.  That 
is  the  situation  now  to  some  degree.  That  is,  you  can  think  of  things  that 
you  use  every  day  that  either  come  from  other  countries  or  are  copied  from 


r 


\ 


SHOULD  COUNTRIES  BE  SELF-SUFFICIENT  f 


111 


their  products.  Many  of  you  use  imported  china  or  wear  Russian-leather 
shoes,  use  dyes  and  German  silver  from  Germany,  have  Japanese  kimonas  or 
Japanese  waste-baskets  or  fans,  have  Indian  sewing  baskets,  wear  French 
flowers  in  your  hats,  use  Irish  linen  on  the  table,  India  rubber  and  spices 
from  the  Orient.  Do  you  think  we  ought  to  be  more  or  less  independent 
than  we  are  ?  Or,  do  you  think  we  ought  to  remain  as  we  are  now  and  let  wars 
continue  ?  Suppose  that  we  were  dependent  not  only  for  certain  luxuries  and 
a  very  few  necessities  upon  other  countries,  but  for  real  every-day  necessities 
that  we  couldn't  do  without.  Do  you  think  that  would  be  a  good  plan? 
Why  ?  Couldn't  nations  make  each  other  behave  if  that  were  the  case  ?  Would 
nations  be  so  ready  to  make  war  ? 

What  do  you  think  of  this  next  argument?  Some  countries  by  reason  of 
the  nature  of  their  soil,  the  temperament  of  their  people,  their  peculiar  tastes 
and  habits  and  customs,  can  make  things  that  other  peoples  can't  possibly 
make,  and  should  therefore  follow  their  natural  inclinations  and  exchange 
what  they  have  for  what  they  want  that  other  nations  have.  Of  course  in  the 
field  of  books  and  art  and  literature  you  will  readily  agree  that  all  nations 
should  exchange  freely.  What  about  other  things  that  we  call  the  essentials 
of  Hfe?  Suppose  that  Russia,  say,  could  raise  cotton,  but  the  United  States 
could  raise  better  cotton,  enough  for  herself  and  Russia  and  the  other  coun- 
tries that  wanted  to  buy;  and  suppose  that  the  United  States  could  raise 
wheat,  but  Russia  could  raise  better  wheat.  Do  you  think  for  the  sake  of  be- 
ing independent  both  should  raise  cotton  and  both  raise  wheat?  Or  is  it 
better  to  exchange,  just  as  a  milliner  might  exchange  her  work  on  a  hat  for  a 
dressmaker's  work  on  a  dress?   What  do  you  think? 

Suppose  that  a  city  wanted  to  be  self-sufficient.  What  are  some  of  the 
things  that  would  happen  ?  List  ten  that  you  can  think  of  right  away.  We 
would  think  it  was  foolish,  wouldn't  we  ?  Suppose  that  every  farmer  wanted 
to  be  independent.  Think  of  the  things  he  would  have  to  do— become  truly 
a  jack  of  all  trades  as  his  pioneer  ancestor  did.  And  back  he  would  be  to  the 
early  primitive  times  which  we  are  all  trying  so  hard  to  advance  from.  Isn't 
the  case  of  nations  similar  to  that  of  the  smaller  communities,  such  as  cities, 
and  towns,  and  villages? 

What  is  your  judgment?  Write  a  check  in  the  space  at  the  end  of  the 
statement  that  you  believe  in : 

1.  Every  nation  should  be  self-sufficient. 

2.  Nations  should  depend  on  each  other  for  luxuries  but  not  for  essen- 
tials. 

3.  Nations  should  be  dependent  on  each  other  for  essentials.    ^'^^  < 
As  you  study  Part  II  of  this  pamphlet,  see  if  you  can  see  how  the  relation 

of  nations  is  similar  to  the  relation  of  cities  and  of  industries  and  of  individuals 
everywhere.  Have  the  three  statements  in  mind  also  and  see  if  you  want 
to  change  your  decision  after  reviewing  this  pamphlet. 


^yni  WE  MUST  BEGIN  NOW  THE  STUDY  OF  ANOTHER 
TOPIC  THAN  CITIES  AND  KEY  INDUSTRIES  IN 
MODERN  NATIONS. 

We  have  come  to  the  end  of  our  account  of  the  interdependence  of  the 
machine  world.  We  have  studied  the  chief  countries  of  the  world,  trying  to 
discover  whether  they  can  exist  alone.  We  have  learned  much  about  how 
our  own  people  live  in  cities,  how  their  living  depends  on  machines  and 
railroads,  how  one  person,  one  industry  and  one  part  of  the  country  depends 
upon  another.  We  have  seen  how  sharply  the  complicated  life  within 
countries  is  contrasted  with  the  self-sufficient  life  of  imperial  nations.  In 
that  connection  we  have  raised  serious  questions  about  the  wisdom  of  per- 
mitting the  imperialistic  practices  of  these  self-sufficient  countries  to  con- 
tinue. So  we  have  merely  laid  the  foundation  for  an  understanding  of  how 
European  countries  came  to  develop  into  world  empires,  encroaching  on 
each  other  and  quarreling  with  each  other  for  territory  in  far-off  lands. 

We  need  now  to  come  to  the  study  of  the  kind  of  government  our 
country  has  made  to  care  for  us  in  this  complicated  machine  world.  We 
need  to  study  how  our  cities  work  and  what  the  municipal  and  national 
government  does  for  the  people,  in  the  country  as  well. 

Later  in  another  pamphlet  we  shall  consider  what  we  American  people 
enjoy,  how  we  spend  our  leisure  time,  whether  we  like  fine  things— music, 
pictures,  good  books  and  how  we  compare  with  other  people  in  this  respect. 
As  we  go  along  we  ask  ourselves  whether  we  are  giving  too  much  attention 
to  manufacturing  things  and  to  making  money  and  not  enough  time  to 
enjoying  the  fine  and  beautiful  things  of  life. 

YOUR  NEED  FOR  A  SUMMARY  OF  THE  WHOLE  PAMPHLET 

Now  before  going  on  to  the  next  pamphlet  you  should  try  to  bring  to- 
gether in  a  short  summary  all  the  threads  of  the  story.  Look  over  the 
lessons  again,  select  the  chief  questions  and  see  if  you  can  answer  them.  If 
you  can  you  will  know  that  you  have  learned  some  important  things  about 
our  country  and  its  relations  with  the  other  countries  of  the  world. 


A  FINAL  NOTE 


113 


IMPORTANT  QUESTIONS  YOU  SHOULD  BE  ABLE  TO 
TALK  ABOUT 

To  the  Teacher:  These  questions  are  brought  together 
here  as  a  summary  of  the  important  points  taken  up  in 
the  entire  pamphlet.  It  is  not  intended  that  you  will 
take  the  time  to  have  them  all  answered  in  class. 

1.    What  are  the  chief  differences  in  the  way  the  pioneer  made  things 
and  the  way  we  do  today  ? 

^  2.    What  are  steps  by  which  the  making  of  things  by  hand  gave  way  to 
making  things  by  machines. 

What  are  the  chief  causes  for  the  growth  of  citiqs,,  1800-192^^5  (p  -  -v  - 

V  4.    Why  do  cities  grow  up  where  they  do? 

5.    Make  a  little  summary  which  will  answer  the  question  :   Does  Amer- 
ica Use  Her  Waterways  Well?  '  M,  ^  ^ 

\6.    Show  how  dependent  modern  life  is  on  coal.  /  f^jf  t      Ci  ry.i. 

7.  Tell  how  coal  was  made.  How  long  will  the  present  supply  ^It  ? '^Ip"^  ' 
Can  it  be  replaced  ?  rj}^  ^y^^^ 

8.  To  what  extent  does  water  determine  where  people  live  on  the 
earth  ? 

9.  "It  is  probable  that  the  United  States  could  exist  alone  longer  than 
any  other  country  in  the  world."  Could  you  convince  some  one  of  this? 

10.  If  England  is  a  self-sufficient  country,  it  is  chiefly  because  of  her 
-X^«r^£^4r^rr:v<><i!*^r:i^^  (Complete  the  sentence  and  show  that  it  is 
true.)  vVlAAK?-- 

11.  In  what  regions  of  the  earth  are  the  densest  populations?  In 
what  part  or  parts  of  the  United  States  are  people  living  most  closely  to- 
gether ? 

12.  What  are  the  chief  reasons  why  people  live  in  certain  regions  and 
not  in  certain  others? 

13.  What  country  is  the  world's  leader  in  ocean-shipping?  Why,  and 
how  has  she  come  to  this  position  of  leadership? 

14.  State  the  steps  that  you  would  follow  to  find  out  whether  a  certain 
country  could  exist  alone.    What  facts  would  you  need? 

-  15.    Prove  that  "Coal  is  king  in  the  manufacturing  world"  by  showing 
how  certain  nations  have  become  leaders. 


1|4  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRY 

^16.  Why  was  Russia,  a  world  power  in  1914,  begging  for  food  in  1920? 
Account  carefully  for  the  crash  of  this  nation. 

17.  Prove  by  using  Russia,  England,  China,  or  the  United  States  as 
an  example,  that  fertility  of  soil,  climate,  area  of  territory,  and  mineral  re- 
sources chiefly  determine  whether  a  country  is  self-sufficient  or  not. 

18.  Give  three  reasons  why  China,  once  an  "advanced"  nation,  is  now 
regarded  as  a  backward  one? 

19.  How  important  are  railroads  in  the  life  of  a  country?  Tell 
several  ways  the  advance  of  the  modern  nations  has  depended  on  railroads. 

20.  Prove  that  iron  and  coal  deposits  are  chief  factors  in  determining 
which  countries  become  leaders  among  nations.  Use  illustrations  from 
different  countries. 

"^^21     Why  is  there  danger  in  the  tendency  for  modern  countries  to  be- 
come self-sufficient?  ^^P"^  ^     ^  .X^-^  ^  ;.'         /;  ^;  ^ 
22.    Do  you  think  nations  should  be  self-sufficient  so  far  as  possible,  or 
interdependent?    Prove  your  answer. 


WHAT  IS  THE  TIE  THAT  BINDS  ONE  SECTION  OF  A 
COUNTRY  TO  ANOTHER  SECTION?  DOES  THE  SAME  TIE 
BIND  COUNTRIES  TOGETHER? 

IS  THE  RELATION  OF  COUNTRIES  TO  EACH  OTHER  LIKE 
THE  RELATION  OF  SECTIONS  WITHIN  A  COUNTRY? 

IS  THERE  ANY  MORE  REASON  FOR  NATIONS  TO  BE  COM- 
PLETELY INDEPENDENT  OF  EACH  OTHER  THAN  FOR  SEC- 
TIONS WITHIN  A  COUNTRY?  WHY? 

To  the  Teacher:  Now  give  the  FINAL  TEST  on  THE 
CITY  AND  KEY  INDUSTRIES  IN  MODERN  NA- 
TIONS. 

Now  take  up  at  once  Pamphlet  No.  3. 


VIII.    A  SUGGESTED  LIST  OF  BOOKS  ON  RESOURCES  AND 
INDUSTRIES  IN  A  MACHINE  WORLD. 


I.  Books  Containing  Stories,  Pictures,  Maps,  etc.,  Suitable  for. 

Junior  High  School  Pupils. 

.  1.     AUen,  NeWie  B.:  United  States.    Ginn  and  Company,  New  York,  1910. 
2.     Allen,  Nellie  B.:  The  Neiv  Europe.    Ginn  and  Company,  New  York,  1920. 

3  Allen!  Nellie  B.:  Asia.  Ginn  and  Company,  New  York,  1916.  These  three 
books,  called  The  Geographical  and  Industrial  Studies,  are  excellent  sup- 
plementary material.    They  contain  many  pictures  and  mterestmg  stones. 

4  Bengtson,  N.  A.  and  Griffith,  Donee:  The  Wheat  Industry.  The  MacMillan 
Company,  New  York,  1915.  A  good  supplementary  reader.  Many  excellent 
pictures  and  maps  help  to  make  the  book  concrete. 

5  Bogart,  Ernest  L. :  The  Economic  History  of  the  United  States.  Longmans, 
Green  and  Company,  New  York,  1918.  An  excellent  reference  book  for  the 
history  of  industrial  progress  in  America.  It  contains  many  charts,  tables,, 
pictures  and  maps. 

6.  Brooks,  E.  C:  The  Story  of  Cotton  and  the  IVestivard  Migration.  Rand, 
McNally  and  Company,  Chicago,  1916. 

7  Brooks  E.  C:  The  Story  of  Cotton  and  the  Development  of  the  Cotton  States. 
Rand,  McNally  and  Company,  Chicago,  1911.  Two  interestmg  supplemen- 
tary readers  describing  the  corn  and  cotton  industries  in  America.  The  books 
have  good  pictures  and  maps. 

8.  Carpenter,  Frank  G. :  Asia.    American  Book  Company,  New  York,  1897. 

9.  Carpenter,  Frank  G. :  Europe.  American  Book  Company,  New  York,  1902. 
10.     Carpenter,  Frank  G.:  Hoiv  the  World  is  Clothed.    American  Book  Company, 

New  York,  1908. 

II.  Carpenter,  Frank  G. :  Hoiv  the  World  is  Fed.  American  Book  Company, 
New  York,  1907. 

12.  Carpenter,  Frank  G.  Honx  the  World  is  Housed.  American  Book  Company, 
New  York,  1911. 

13.  Carpenter,  Frank  G.:  North  America.  American  Book  Company,  New  York, 
1898 

These  six  books  are  supplementary  readers  in  geography.  They  tell  in  a 
simple  way  about  the  world's  resources  and  how  we  provide  for  our  three 
chief  needs:  food,  shelter  and  clothing.  They  contain  many  excellent 
pictures. 

14.  Casson,  Herbert  N.:  Cyrus  Hall  McCormick,  His  Life  and  Work.  A.  C. 
McClurg  and  Company,  Chicago,  1909.  An  interesting  biography  of  a  man 
whose  inventions  advanced  American  industry  tremendously.  Biographies 
of  other  industrial  leaders  should  by  all  means  be  used  in  discussing  Indus- 
tries and  Resources  in  a  Machine  World. 

15.  Casson,  Herbert  N.:  The  History  of  the  Telephone.  A.  C.  McClurg  and 
and  Company,  Chicago,  1913.  A  clear  and  interesting  description  of  the 
development  of  this  invention.    An  invaluable  supplementary  reader. 

16.  Casson,  Herbert  N.:  The  Romance  of  the  Reaper.  Doubleday,  Page  and 
Company,  New  York,  1908.  An  accurate,  yet  entertaining  story  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  farm  machinery  business.  Valuable  for  supplementary 
reading,  full  of  concrete  stories  of  the  reaoer. 


116  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRY 

17  Crump,  Irving:  The  Boy's  Book  of  Railroads.  Dodd,  Mead  and  Company, 
New  York,  1921.  Several  interesting  stories  about  the  various  men  who 
maintain  and  operate  our  railroads— the  engineers,  conductors,  station  agents, 
signalmen  and  others. 

18.  Earle,  Alice  M.:  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days.  The  MacMillan  Company, 
New  York,  1919.  Elaborately  illustrated  and  full  of  rich  detail,  it  is  by  far 
the  best  source  from  which  to  get  a  picture  of  home  life  and  industry  in 
Colonial  times. 

19.  Finch,  V.  C.  and  Baker,  O.  E.  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture.  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Government  Printing  Office,  Washington, 
D.  C.  1917.  Every  teacher  wall  find  this  atlas  of  great  assistance  as  a  refer- 
ence book  for  the  students  and  as  a  source  for  supplementary  maps. 

20.  Hendrick,  Burton  J.:  The  Age  of  Big  Business.  Yale  University  Press,  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  1919.  Gives  the  history  of  certain  important  mdustries— oil, 
steel,  the  telephone,  public  utilities,  farm  machinery  and  the  automobile.  Good 
for  concrete  stories  of  these  industries. 

21  Tudd,  Charles  H.  and  Marshall,  Leon  C:  Lessons  in  Community  and  National 
Life.  Three  Series— Series  A:  for  the  Senior  High  School,  Series  B:  for  the 
Junior  High  School,  Series  C:  for  the  Intermediate  grades.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, Washington,  D.  C,  1918.  Each  series  is  suitable  for  seventh  grade  pupi.s. 
These'  lessons  are  most  important  supplementary  material  for  use  m  classes 
in  the  social  sciences.  They  contain  many  concrete  examples  of  mdustrial  and 
community  life. 

72  Keller  A.  G.  and  Bishop,  A.  L.:  Commercial  and  Industrial  Geography. 
Ginn  and  Company,  New.  York,  1912.  A  presentation  of  simple  practical 
facts  about  America  and  industry.    A  good  supplementary  reader. 

73  Marshall,  Leon  C.  and  Lyon,  Leverett  S.:  Our  Economic  Organization.  The 
MacMillan  Company,  New  York,  1921.  An  excellent  textbook  on  industry 
for  the  use  of  senior  high  school  pupils.  Contains  excellent  descriptions  ot 
machine  industry  and  the  control  of  business  today. 

74  Moody,  John:  The  Masters  of  Capital.  Yale  University  Press,  New  Haven 
Conn  1919.  This  book  gives  an  excellent  account  of  the  activities  of  several  ot 
our  great  business  men  in  managing  important  industries  of  America. 

75  Moody  John:  The  Railroad  Builders.  Yale  T^Tniversity  Press,  New  Haven 
^  "     Conn    1919     An  excellent  historical  account  of  how  our  great  trunk  lines  and 

transcontinental  systems  were  developed  by  pioneer  railroad  builders  ike 
Vanderbilt,  Thomson,  Hill,  Huntington  and  Harriman.  Gives  important 
facts  about  the  history  of  railroad  consolidation. 


76  Smith  T  Russell:  Commerce  and  Industry.  Henry  Holt  and  Company,  New 
'  York,'l916.  A  valuable  reference  book  because  of  its  descriptions  ot  various 
industries.    Full  of  pictures,  maps  and  charts. 

.7  Smith,  J.  Russell:  The  Story  of  Iron  and  Steel  D.  Appleton  and  Company, 
New  York  1920.  A  very  valuable  supplementary  reader  Chiefly  a  des- 
criptive account  of  modern  mining,  shipping  and  smelting  of  iron  ore.  Four- 
teen well  selected  illustrations  are  included. 

"X  Soutl  worth,  Gertrude  and  Kramer,  Stephen:  Great  ^j^ies  of  the  United 
S  roquois  Publishing  Company,  Inc.,  Syracuse  New  \ork,  1916.  A 
desaiptive  and  historical  discussion  of  thirteen  of  the  largest  cities  in  the 
United  States. 

X,      The  Statesman's   Year-Book,   1922.     The  MacMillan   Company,  New  York, 
1,22     A  one-volume  refere.>ce  book  which  covers  the  essential  statistics  and 
nets  on  industry,  population,  commerce,  etc.,  of  every  country  in  the  world. 
1  I?s  l^H.k  a.ul  77///rV        .'Umanac  should  be  available  for  reference  m 
(•v<My  school  library. 

1„       r-ivlor   Graliam  R. :    Satellite  Cities.    D.  Appleton  and  a)mpany,  New  York, 
915     A  clear  cut  description  of  many  of  the  prob  ems  of  the  American  city. 
The  book  contains  many  excellent  illustrations  of  ways  to  improving  our 
urban  centers. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


117 


31  Thompson,  Charles  M.:  History  of  the  United  States.  Benjamin  H.  Sanborn 
and  Company,  Chicago,  1920.  A  history  dealing  chiefly  with  industrial  and 
social  matters.  A  good  book  to  use  for  supplementary  work  in  studying  the 
history  of  industry. 

32  Thompson,  Holland:  The  Age  of  Invention.  Yale  University  Press,  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  1921.  An  excellent  account  of  several  of  the  most  important 
inventors.    It  tells  how  their  work  has  revolutionized  our  industries  today. 

33  Washington,  William  D.:  Progress  and  Prosperity.  The  National  Educational 
Publishing  Company,  New  York,  1911.  The  story  of  building  a  new  country 
and  unifying  it  through  improved  transportation.  This  book  invaluable  for  its 
many  pictures  and  graphic  ways  of  describing  our  transportation  system  and 
its  growth. 

34.  The  World  Almanac  and  Enclychpedia  for  1922.  Press  Publishing  Company, 
New  York  World,  New  York,  1922.  A  small  one-volume  encyclopedia.  It 
contains  statistical  and  factual  information  about  political,  economic  and 
social  matters.    An  excellent  and  cheap  reference  book  for  the  class. 

II.    Suggested  Books  For  Teachers. 

1.  Baring,  Maurice:  Russian  Essays  and  Stories.  Methuen  and  Company,  36 
Essex  Street  W.  C,  London.  1908.  Stories  which  give  a  clear  picture  of 
Russian  life,  thoughts,  and  travel  before  the  Revolution  of  1917. 

2.  Bowman,  Isaiah:  The  Nenv  World.  World  Book  Company,  Yonkers,  New 
York,  1921.  A  most  searching  and  authoritative  discussion  of  the  problems  of 
present-day  political  geography.  Contemporary  international  relations  ex- 
plained with  reference  to  their  geographical  and  historical  setting.  Buy 
this  book  if  you  can  buy  only  one  contemporary  book. 

3.  Cotter,  Arundel:  United  States  Steel.  Doubleday,  Page  and  Company,  Gar- 
den City,  New  York,  1921.  A  concrete  story  of  the  history  of  steel  industry. 
Valuable  for  its  descriptions  and  facts. 

4.  Betham— Edwards,  Matilda  B.:    Home  Life  in  France.    A.  C.  McClurg  and 

Company,   Chicago,   1905.     A  good  descriptive  account,  full  of  interesting 
episodes  and  illustrations. 
5     Fielde,  Adele  M. ;    A  Corner  of  Cathay.    The  MacMillan  Company,  New 
York,  1894,    An  interesting  description  of  the  life  of  the  Chinese. 

6.  Gibbons,  Herbert  A.:  The  Nenv  Map  of  Asia.  (1900-1919).  The  Century 
Company,  New  York,  1919.  A  very  important  book.  "Presents  the  principal 
facts  and  problems  of  Asiatic  history  since  1900  in  so  far  as  they  are  the  result 
of  or  have  been  largely  influenced  by  the  maintenance  and  extension  of  Eur- 
opean intervention." 

7.  Haney,  Lewis  H. :  Business  Organization  and  Combination.  The  MacMillan 
Company,  New  York,  1921.  A  systematic  treatment  of  the  development  of 
"big  business"  and  the  "trusts."    A  valuable  reference  book. 

8.  Headland,  Isaac  T.:  Home  Life  in  China.  The  MacMillan  Company,  New 
York,  1914.  Many  interesting  episodes  and  pictures  about  the  customs  of 
the  Chinese. 

9.  Johnson,  Emory  R.  and  Van  Metre,  T.  W. :  Principles  of  Railroad  Trans- 
portation. D.  Appleton  and  Company,  New  York,  1920.  A  most  important 
and  comprehensive  book  describing  all  phases  of  railroad  transportation. 

10.  Jones,  Eliot:  The  Trust  Problem  in  the  United  States.  The  MacMillan  Com- 
pany, New  York,  1921.  The  most  recent  and  authoritative  treatment  of  some 
of  the  present  day  characteristics  of  industry.  Concrete  examples  of  the  his- 
tory and  pictures  of  several  of  our  "key"  industries.    A  helpful  reference  book. 

11.  King,  Wlllford  I.:  The  Wealth  and  Income  of  the  People  of  the  United 
States.  The  MacMillan  Company,  New  York,  1919.  This  book  describes 
the  wealth  of  America  and  its  distributibri  among  families,  industries  and 
corporations.  Use  it  in  connection  with  No.  16.:  The  Income  in  the  United 
States. 


118  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRY 

12.  Latourette,  Kenneth  S.:  The  Development  of  China.  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany, Boston,  1917.  One  of  the  best  books  for  the  teacher,  on  the  historical 
development  of  China,  full  bibliography  given  at  the  end  of  the  book. 

13.  Latourette,  Kenneth  S. :  The  Development  of  Japan.  The  MacMillan  Com- 
pany, New  York,  1918.  One  of  the  best  books  on  the  historical  development 
of  Japan.  A  bibliography  included  will  be  suggestive  for  more  extensive  read- 
ing. 

14.  Marshall,  Leon  C:  Readings  in  Industrial  Society.  The  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  Chicago,  1918.  This  book  contains  many  excellent  quotations 
and  examples  of  such  important  characteristics  of  industry,  as  concentration, 
integration,  specialization  and  interdependence.  An  excellent  source  book 
about  economic  and  industrial  matters. 

15.  Morse,  Edward  G.:  Glimpses  of  China  and  Chinese  Homes.  Little,  Brown 
and  Company,  Boston,  1902.  An  interesting  description  of  Chinese  home  life 
with  many  excellent  illustrations. 

16.  The  National  Bureau  of  Economic  Research,  Inc.:  The  Income  in  the  United 
States.  Vol.  L  (Summary.)  Harcourt,  Brace  and  Company,  New  York,  1921. 
The  most  recent  and  authoritative  statement  of  what  the  income  in  the  United 
States  is. 

17.  Smith,  J.  Russell:  The  World's  Food  Resources.  Henry  Holt  and  Company 
New  York,  1919.  A  valuable  reference  book  for  the  teacher  about  our  food 
resources.    It  contains  many  excellent  maps,  charts  and  pictures. 

18.  Tryon,  Rolla  M.:  Household  Manufactures  in  the  United  States,  1640-1860. 
The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago,  1917.  A  valuable  reference  book 
for  the  study  of  "From  Home  to  Factory." 

19.  Weber,  Adna  F.:  The  Grovjth  of  Cities  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  Published 
for  Columbia  University  by  The  MacMillan  Company,  New  York,  1899.  The 
best  single  source  from  which  to  get  data  and  statistics  (to  1899)  on  the  growth 
of  cities  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

20.  Wells,  H.  G.:  Russia  in  the  Shadoivs.  George  H.  Doran  Company,  New 
York,  1921.  Impressions  of  Russia  by  one  of  the  world's  keenest  students, 
following  his  visit  to  that  country  in  1920. 

III.    Additional  Suggestions  To  Teachers  About  Supplementary 

Material 

A.  1.  School  geographies  should  constantly  be  used  in  the  study  and  discussion  of 

the  foregoing  lessons  in  Resources  and  Industries  in  a  Modern  fV orld.  Three 
of  the  most  recent  school  geographies  are  (1)  Atwood,  W.  W. :  Neiv  Geo- 
graphy Book  two,  Ginn  and  Company,  New  York,  1920.  (2)  McMurry, 
F.  M.  and  Parkins,  A.  E.:  Advanced  Geography.  The  MacMillan  Company, 
New  York,  1921.  (3)  Smith,  J.  Russell:  Human  Geography.  Book  one.  The 
John  C.  Winston  Company,  Philadelphia,  1921.  Any  other  geography  avail- 
able may  be  used. 

B.  An  important  magazine  that  gives  the  most  recent  and  authoritative  digest 
of  the  developments  in  industry  and  business  is  The  Industrial  Digest;  Peri- 
odical Digest  Corporation,  25  W.  Forty-fifth  St.,  New  York.  Subscription 
rate,  $5.00  per  year.  This  is  "a  fortnightly  digest  of  informative  articles  in 
one  thousand  leading  industrial  magazines  covering  thirty  industries."  Each 
issue  contains  many  pictures,  charts  and  maps.  Your  school  librar>^  should 
subscribe  to  this  magazine. 

C.  We  suggest  that  you  make  use  of  other  current  periodicals  such  as  The  Liter- 
ary Digest,  The  Outlook,  The  Review  of  Revievjs,  The  Current  Opinion,  The 
World's  Work,  The  National  Geographic  and  The  Scientific  American. 

D.  Some  of  the  most  valuable  and  interesting  supplementary  material  may  be 
obtained  by  writing  to  various  corporations.  Each  of  the  companies  below 
will  mail  free  helpful  pamphlets  which  describe  their  work.  Tie  pictures 
and  charts  in  some  of  them  are  excellent.  It  would  be  well  to  state  in  your 
letter  requesting  material  that  you  desire  it  for  school  use. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


119 


These   Industries  Publish   Helpful  Descriptive  Material 

1.  The  Automobile  Industry:  Write  to  the  Ford  Motor  Company,  Detroit,  Michi- 
gan. 

2.  The  Banking  Industry:  Write  to  (1)  The  National  City  Bank  of  New  York, 
55  Wall  St..  New  York,  N.  Y.  (2)  Guaranty  Trust  Company  of  New  York, 
140  Broadway,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

3.  Chain  stores:  Write  to  The  F.  W.  Woolworth  Company,  Woolworth  Build- 
ing, New  York,  N.  Y. 

4.  Conditions  in  Cities:  Address  the  Secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  in 
each  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States. 

5.  Coal:  Write  to  the  Consolidation  Coal  Company,  Munson  Building,  New 
York,  N.  Y. 

6.  Electricity:    Write  to  the  General  Electric  Company,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

7.  Farm  Machinery:  Write  to  the  International  Harvester  Company,  Chicago, 
Illinois. 

8.  Grain:  Write  to  the  Washburn-Crosby  Flour  Mills,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  or  the 
Pillsbury  Company,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

9.  Mail  order  houses:  Write  to  Sears,  Roebuck  and  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois, 
or  Montgomery  Ward,  Chicago,  111. 

10  Meat  packing:  Write  to  (1)  Armour  and  Company,  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chi- 
cago, Illinois.  (2)  Swift  and  Company,  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  Ilhnois. 

11.  Steel:    Write  to  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  71  Broadway,  New  York, 
N.  Y. 

12.  Shoe  Machinery:  Write  to  the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company,  Beverly, 
Massachusetts. 

13.  Textiles:  Write  to  (1)  The  American  Woolen  Company,  Boston,  Mass.,  (2) 
to  the  Parkhill  Manufacturing  Company,  Fitchburg,  Mass. 

14.  Transportation:  Write  to  the  General  Passenger  Agent  of  the  leading  rail- 
road systems.  These  railroads  issue  pamphlets  typical  of  this  supplementary 
material  (1)  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company,  New  York  City,  (2)  The 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  San  Francisco,  California,  (3)  The  Chicago  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul  Railroad,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota.  Steamship  lines 
like  the  Cunard  Line,  25  Broadway,  New  York,  N.  Y.  publish  similar  des- 
criptive pamphlets. 

15.  Telephone:  Write  to  the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraphy  Company,  195 
Broadway,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

16.  Watch  Industry:  Write  to  the  (1)  Waltham  Watch  Company,  Waltham, 
Massachusetts,  or  (2)  Elgin  Watch  Company,  Elgin,  Illinois. 


3  0112  044104344 


A  SUGGESTED  SCHEDULE  OF  LESSONS 

TO  the  Teacher:  VERY  IMPORTANT.  The  study  of 
this  pamphlet  should  not  take  more  than  75  to  80  school  ex- 
ercises if  the  remaining  topics  are  to  be  distributed  equitably 
over  the  remainder  of  the  year.  The  following  schedule  is 
the  one  that  we  shall  try  to  follow.  Feel  free  to  adapt  it  as 
you  like.  You  may  wish  to  save  time  by  omitting  some  sec- 
tions. If  more  readings  are  needed  for  some  pupils  use 
the  ninth  grade  pamphlet  on  this  topic. 

On  any  one  of  these  assignments  have  the  pupils  read 
straight  through  first,  not  ansivering  the  questions.  Fol- 
loiving  that  have  them  go  back  and  work  out  the  ansivers 
to  the  questions. 

If  any  questions  appear  to  you  to-  be  distinctly  too 
difficult  and  time-consuming  after  a  reasonable  attempt 
with  them  pass  on  to  the  next  work.  Please  make  your  criti- 
cism of  such  things  clear  in  your  "  criticism  pamphlet " 
which  you  will  return  to  us. 

You  Should  Begin  this  Pamphlet  Not  Later  Than  November  1, 
and  Finish  the  Latter  Part  of  February 

Turn  through  the  major  topics  of  the  entire  pamphlet  in  order  to  see 
what  it  describes.  Read  and  comment  on  the  list  of  questions  at  the 
very  end  of  the  pamphlet:  Important  Questions  You  Should  Be  Able 
to  Talk  About, 

PART  I. 

Read  and  discuss  topic  I:    Complicated  Life  Today,  pages  1-7. 

Read  and  discuss  topic  II:  Real  Stories  of  How  People's  Work  Has 
Gone  From  the  Home  to  the  Factory,  pages  8-18.  Spend  two  class  periods 
on  this  chapter. 

Nine  lessons  are  suggested  for  topic  III:  The  Startling  Growth  of 
Cities,  1800-1922.  For  lesson  5  read  and  discuss  pages  19-24  and  work 
the  exercise  on  page  24.  Do  the  review  map  exercise  on  page  24  and 
answer  questions  on  page  24  for  lesson  6.  Read  pages  25-30  on  Why 
Cities  Grow  and  study  figs.  10-17  for  lesson  7.  About  six  lessons  will 
be  necessary  in  order  to  cover  the  exercises,  pages  30-38  on  Why  Cities 
Have  Grown  Where  They  Did.  (Spend  lesson  8  on  the  map  exercise, 
pages  30-31,  lesson  9  discussing  pages  31-34  and  lesson  10  on  pages  34-37. 
Give  two  class  periods,  lessons  11  and  12,  to  the  exercise  on  page  38. 
Lesson  13  should  be  devoted  to  preparing  the  summary  of  topic  III, 
pages  19-38.) 

Spend  eleven  lessons  on  topic  IV:  Transportation — Crucial  to  City 
and  Country.  Read  and  discuss  the  first  section,  pages  39  and  40,  in- 
cluding pages  66-71  of  Part  II  referred  to  for  lesson  14.  Spend  lessons 
15  and  16  on  pages  40-42,on  Where  Does  the  Food  on  Your  Dinner  Table 
Come  From?  Read  and  discuss  pages  42-48:  A  Picture  Story  of  a  Cen- 
tury of  TrdHsporlalion  for  lesson  i7.  Spend  two  lessons — 18  and  19 — 
reading  and  Avorking  the  exercises  on  pages  49-51.  We  suggest  that  you 
devote  one  lesson — 20 — to  the  special  reports  listed  on  page  51.  Two 
lessons  will  be  necessary  for  the  exercises  on  section  6:  Does  America 
Use  Her  li' atcrwaysf ,  pages  51-57.  Spend  lessons  23  and  24  work- 
ing the  review  (juestions,  pages  57  and  58,  and  preparing  the  summary 
of  topic  IV.:    Transportation — Crucial  to  City  and  Country. 


Lesson 
No. 


2. 

3.  4. 


5,  6,  7, 
8,  9,  10, 
11,  12,  13. 


14, 

15, 

16 

17, 

18, 

19 

20, 

21, 

22 

23, 

24. 

